Collecting Qualitative

Data
Prof. Dr. Jegak Uli
This unit is divided into three parts
1. Interview
2. Observation
3. Documents
 Part I
Collecting Qualitative
Data: Interview
Learning outcomes: Part 1
• 1. Able to explain the different types of interview by structure,
philosophical and disciplinary orientation.
• 2. Able to explain the different types of questions to ask and how to
ask good question.
• 3. Able to explain what probes is and be skillful at probing.
• 4. Able to explain what need to done to begin an interview.
• 5. Be able to explain the three basic ways to record interview data.
Topics for Part 1
• Types of Interview
• Asking Good Questions
• Probes
• Interview Guide
• Beginning The Interview
• Recording and Transcribing Interview Data
Types of Interview (Temuduga):
By Structure (Struktur);
• Highly structured (Berstruktur tinggi)
• Semi-structured (Separa Berstruktur )
• Unstructured (Tak berstruktur)

By Philosophical and Disciplinary Orientation

• Philosophical perspective (perspektif falsafah)
• Disciplinary perspective (perspektif bidang/disiplin)
• Focus Group Interview (Temuduga kumpulan fokus)
Types of Interview
(by structure)
Highly structure
• sometimes called standardized interviews, questions and the order
(susunan) in which they are asked are determined ahead of time
(ditentukan terlebih dahulu).
• Most structured interview – oral form (lisan) of the written survey (kajian
tinjauan yg bertulis).
• Example;
1) The U.S. Census Bureau;
2) marketing surveys
Highly structure
• Problem with using a highly structured interview in qualitative interview
• Rigidly adhering to predetermined questions may not allow you to
access (tidak membenarkan memasuki) participants’ perspectives and
understandings (perspektif dan pemahaman peserta) of the world.
• Based on the shaky assumptions (andaian yg tidak kuat) that
respondents share a common vocabulary and the questions (peserta
memp. perkataan dan soalan yg sama) will be interpreted the same by
all respondents (akan diinterpretasikan sama oleh semua peserta).
Major use;
• To gather common socio-demographic data from respondents. E.g.;
age, income, marital status and so on
• To respond (menjawab) to a particular statement or to define a
particular concept or term.
Semi-structure
Introduction –
• Interviewing in qualitative investigations is more open-ended and less
structured.
• less structured formats assume that individual respondents define
(menerangkan) the world in unique ways.
Semistructure
• Either all questions are more flexibly worded or the interview is mix
(gabungan) of more and less structured questions.
• Specific information is desired from all the respondents, in which case
there is a more structured section to the interview
Semi-structure
Largest part (sebhg besar)
• guided by (berpandu kpd) a list of questions or issues to be explored
(dikaji),
• neither the exact wording (perkataan tepat) nor the order of the
questions (susunan soalan) is determined ahead of time (tidak
ditetapkan terlebih dahulu).
This format allow researcher to respond (menjawab)
• To the situation at hand (situasi semasa)
• To the emerging worldview (pandangan yg berkembang) of the
respondent
• To new ideas on the topic
Unstructured and Informal
Useful when;
• Researcher does not know enough about a phenomena (tidak memp
pengatuhuan yg cukup) to ask a relevant questions
• There is no predetermined set of questions (soalan tidak ditentukan
terdahulu)
• The interview is essentially exploratory (berbentuk tinjauan)
Goal – learning enough about a situation to formulate questions for
subsequent interviews (mempelajari sesuatu situasi dgn cukup utk
membentuk soalan bagi menjalankan temeduga yg seterusnya)
• Often used in conjunction with (digunakan bersama) participant
observation (pemerhatian peserta) in the early stages (peringkat awal) of
a qualitative study
Unstructured and Informal
• Insights and understanding (padangan dan pemahaman) can be obtained
• An interviewer may feel lost (rasa hilang) in a sea of divergent viewpoint
(pandangan berbeza) and seemingly unconnected (tidak berkaitan) pieces
of information.
• Totally unstructured interview- rarely used (jarang digunakan).
• Most studies – researcher combine all three types of interviewing.
Example
• You are studying the role of mentoring (peranan penasihatan) in the
career development (pembangunan kajaya) of master teachers.
• Highly structured interview – you might begin by giving each respondent
a definition of mentoring and then asking the person to identify
someone who is a mentor.
• Semi-structured interview; you would be more likely to ask each teacher
to describe his or her understanding of mentoring
• Unstructured interview; you might ask the respondent to share
(berkongsi) how he or she got to be a master teacher
 Interview structure continuum
Highly Structured/ Semi-structured Unstructured/Informal
Standardized
• Wording of questions is • Interview guide includes a • Open-ended questions
predetermined mix of more and less • Flexible, exploratory
• Order of questions is structured interview • More like a conversation
predetermined questions (perbualan)
• Interview is oral form of • All questions used flexibly • Used when researcher does
a written survey • Usually specific data not know enough about
• In qualitative studies, required from all phenomenon to ask relevant
usually used to obtain respondents questions
demographic data • Largest part of interview • Goal is learning from this
• Examples; U.S. Census guided by list of questions interview to formulate
Bureau survey, or issues to be explored questions for later interviews
marketing surveys. • No predetermined wording • Used primarily in
or order ethnography, participant
observation, and case study
 Types of Interview
(By Philosophical and Disciplinary
Orientation)
Philosophical perspective
Six conceptions of interviewing (Roulton, 2007)
Neo-positive ;
• Skillful interviewer asks good questions, minimizes bias (berat sebelah)
through his/her neutral stance (pendirian berkecuali), generate quality data
and produces valid findings.

1. “Romantic” conceptions ;
• The researcher “makes no claim to being objective”, analyzes and reveals
subjectivities, and strives (cuba) “to generate the kind of conversation that is
intimate (perbualan rapat atau mersa) and self-revealing (mendedahkan diri)”.
• Draws from phenomenology, psychoanalysis, feminist research, and psycho-
social theories.
Philosophical perspective
2. Constructivist
• how the interview data are constructed receives attention through such tools as
discourse analysis, narrative analysis, and conversation analysis.

3. Postmodern
• congruent with (selari dgn) postmodern theory, the aim of the interview is not
to come up with a single perception of the self, since there is no essential self;
rather, there are "various non-unitary performances of selves" and the
presentations of these data are via creative performance.
• There is no single “truth”; rather there are multiple “truths.”
Philosophical perspective
4. Transformative & de-colonizing (transformatif dan penamatan
penjajahan)
• Share a critical theory – issues of power, privilege (keistemewaan) and
oppression (penedasan) are made visible.

5. Transformative
• The researcher “intentionally aims to challenge and change (mencabar dan
mengubah) the understandings of participants”

6. De-colonizing
• Concern is with “restorative justice (pemulihan/membaikpulih keadilan) for
indigenous people”
• To privilege an indigenous research agenda that “involves the processes of
decolonization, transformation, mobilization, and healing (penyembuhan)”
Disciplinary perspective
Ethnographic – focuses on culture
• The type of information elicited (dihasilkan) from an interview is data about
the culture of a group such as its rites and rituals (upacara), myths
(mitos/cerita dogeng), hierarchies, heroes (pahlawa/perwira), and so on.

Phenomenological
• Researcher attempts to uncover the essence (pati/intisari) of an individual’s
experience; such an interview “focuses on the deep, lived meanings that
events have for individuals, assuming that these meanings guide actions and
interactions (Marshall & Rossman, 2006)”
• Common practice – researchers write their own experiences of the
phenomenon or to be interviewed by a colleague in order to “bracket” their
experiences prior to interviewing others.
 Types of Interview
(Focus Group Interviews)
Focus Group Interviews
• An interview on a topic with a group of people who have knowledge of
the topic (Krueger, 2008; Stewart et.al, 2006)

Composition of focus group

• Depend on the topic to be discussed
• Purposeful sampling – include people who know the most about the
topic.
• No hard or fast rules about how many to include in a group – 6 to 10
participants (most writers suggest) – preferably people who are
stranger to each other
• Moderator/interviewer – familiar with group processes and with range
of possible roles as moderator
Focus Group Interviews
• Work best for topics people could talk about to each other in their
everyday lives – but don’t.

• Poor choice for topics that are sensitive (peka), highly personal, and
culturally inappropriate to talk about in the presence of strangers.

• The best way to get the best data that addresses your research
questions.
Asking Good
Questions
Asking Good Questions
• The key to getting good data from interviewing is to ask good question
and takes practice.
• Pilot interviews are crucial for trying out your questions.
• Pilot interviews can quickly learn which questions
• are confusing (mengelirukan) and need rewording (memerlukan penulisan
semula),
• yield useless data (menghasilkan data yg tidak berguna),
• you should have thought to include in the first place (yg difikirkan boleh
dimasukkan dari mula lagi).
Asking Good Questions
• Different types of questions will yield different information.
• The questions you ask depend upon the focus of your study.

Follow-up questions:
1)how they felt about certain mentoring experience would elicit
(menghasilkan) more affective information (maklumat perasaan).
2)their opinion as to how much influence mentoring has generally in a
teacher’s career.
Tips
• WORD is a crucial consideration in extracting the type of information
desired.

• Use familiar language “Using words that makes sense (difahami) to the
interviewee, words that reflect the respondent’s world view, will improve
the quality of data obtained during the interview.

• Avoiding technical jargon and terms and concepts from your particular
disciplinary orientation
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Patton (2002) suggests six types of questions;
1. Experience and behavior questions (soalan berbentuk pengalaman &
kelakuan) -
• To get at the thing a person does or did, his or her behaviors, actions,
and activities.

Example;
• A Study of leadership exhibited (yg ditujukkan) by administrators,
Question:
• “Tell me about a typical day at work, what are you likely to do first thing in the
morning?”
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
2. Opinion and values questions (soalan pandangan & nilai) -
• interest in a person’s beliefs or opinions, what he or she thinks about
something.

Example;
• A study of administration & leadership,
• Question:
“What is your opinion as to whether administrator should also be leaders?”
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
3. Feeling questions (soalan perasaan)
• tap the affective dimension of human life.
• looking for adjective responses (kata sifat): anxious, happy, afraid, intimated
(humiliated/dejected), confident, and so on. (p. 350)
Example; Question: ‘how do you feel about that?-

4. Knowledge questions (soalan pengetahuan)

• elicit a participant’s actual factual knowledge about a situation
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
5. Sensory (deria) question
• similar to experience and behavior questions, but;
• try to elicit more specific data about what is or was seen, heard, touched,
and so forth.

6. Background/ demographic questions (soalan latarbelakang)-

• all interviews contain question that refer to the particular demographic
(age, income, education, number of years on the job, etc.) of the person
being interviewed as relevant to the research study.
• Example, the age of the respondent may or may not be relevant.
TYPES OF GOOD QUESTIONS
Strauss, Schatzma , Bucher, and Sabshin’s (1998) suggest four major
categories of question;

1. Hypothetical questions (soalan andaian/anggapan)

• ask respondent to speculate as to what something might be like or what
someone might do in a particular situation.
• begin with “What if” or “Suppose”.

Example: Suppose it were my first day in this training program. What should
it be like?
TYPES OF GOOD QUESTIONS
2. Devil’s advocate questions (soalan utk mendapat pandangan yg
bertentangan)
• The respondent is challenged to consider an opposing view or
explanation to a situation.
• good to use when the topic is controversial and you want respondents’
opinions and feelings.
• avoids embarrassing or antagonizing (elakkan dari memalu & melawan)
respondents if they happen to be sensitive about the issues.
• The wording begins, “Some people would say” (ada orang menyatakan),
which in effect depersonalizes the issues.

Example; some people would say that employee who lost their job did
something to bring about being fired. What would you tell
them?
TYPES OF GOOD QUESTIONS
3. Ideal position questions (soalan kedudukan ideal)
• elicit both information and opinion
• to reveal both the positives and the negatives or shortcomings of a
program.
Example; Would you describe what you think the ideal training program
would be like?

4. Interpretive questions (soalan interpretatif)

• provide a check (semak) on what you think you are understanding,
• offer an opportunity for yet more information, opinion, and feelings to be
revealed.
Example; Would you say that returning to school as an adult is different from
what you expected?(to confirm tentative interpretation of what
had been said in the interview)
TYPES OF QUESTION TO AVOID
Three types of questions to avoid
1) Multiple questions (soalan berganda)
• one question that is actually a multiple question
• a series of single questions that does not allow the respondent to answer
one by one.
Example ;
• How do you feel about the instructors, the assignments, and the schedule
of classes in the JTPA training program?
• What’s it like going back to school as an adult? How do instructors
respond to you? What kind of assignments do you have?
TYPES OF QUESTION TO AVOID
2) Leading questions (soalan yg memandu jawapan yg diberi)
• reveal (menunjukkan) a bias (berat sebelah) or an assumption (andaian)
that the researcher is making, which may not be held by the participant.
• These set (menentukan) the respondent up to accept (menerima) the
researcher’s point of view (pandangan penyelidik).
Example;
• What emotional problems have you had since losing your job? (assumes
that anyone losing a job will have emotional problem).
TYPES OF QUESTION TO AVOID
3) Yes-or-no questions (soalan ya atau tidak).
• All researchers warn against asking yes-or-no questions.
• Yes-or-no responses give you almost no information.
• For the reluctant, shy, or less verbal respondent, they offer an easy way
out;
• they can also shut down or at least slow the flow of information from the
interviewee.
Example;
• Do you like the program?
• Has returned to school been difficult?
 TYPES OF QUESTION TO AVOID
Type of Question Example
How do you feel about the instructors, the
Multiple Questions
assignments, and the schedule of classes?

What emotional problems have you had since

Leading Questions
losing your job?

Do you like the program? Has returning to

Yes-or-no Questions
school being difficult?
Probes
Probes (menyasiat dengan
teliti/mendalam)
• Questions or comments that followed up (soalan susulan) something
already asked.
• It is virtually impossible to specify these ahead of time because they are
dependent on how the participant answers the lead question.
• Advantage - highly sensitive primary instrument of data collection.
• You make adjustments in your interviewing as you go along. You sense
that the respondent is onto something significant or that there is more
to be learned.
Probes (menyasiat dengan teliti/mendalam)
• Probing can come in the form of asking for more details, for clarifications,
for examples.
• May take many forms: from silence, to sounds, to a single word, to
complete sentences.
• Silence, “used judiciously ……. is a useful and easy probe as is the bunched
utterance, ‘uh huh, uh huh,’ sometimes combined with a nodding head.
• ‘Yes, yes’ is a good alternative; variety is useful” (Glesne and Peshkin,
1992, p. 86) emphasis in original).
• The interviewer should avoid pressing (demanding) too hard and too
fast.
• the participant is being interviewed, not interrogated (grilled).
Probes (menyasiat dengan teliti/mendalam)
• Probes or follow-up questions can be as simple as seeking more
information or clarity about what the person has just said.
• These are typically who, what, when, and where questions such as;
• Who else was there? What did you do then? When did this happen? Or Where
were you when this happened?
• What do you mean? Tell me more about that. Give me an example of that. “Walk”
me through the experience. Would you explain that?
Tips
The best way to increase your skill at probing is
• to practice.
• to scrutinize a verbatim transcript (rekod perbualan asal) of
one of your interviews.
• to look for places where you could have followed up but did
not, and compare them to places where you got a lot of
good data.
Interview Guide
Interview Guide (Panduan temuduga)
• A list of questions you intend to ask in an interview.
• Depending on how structured the interview will be,
• Most interviews in qualitative research are semi structured;
• Most researchers find that they are highly dependent upon the interview
guide for the first few interviews but that
• they soon can unhook themselves from constant reference to the questions and
can go with the natural flow of the interview.
Interview Guide
• New researchers are often concerned about the order of questions in an
interview.
• No rules determine what should go first and what should come later.
• Depends upon the study’s objectives, the time allotted for the interview,
the person being interviewed, and how sensitive some of the questions are.
• Factual, sociodemographic-type questions can be asked to get the
interview started, but if there are a lot of these, or if some of them are
sensitive (for example, if they ask about income, age, or sexual orientation),
it might be better to ask them at the end of the interview.
Tips
• Generally it is a good idea to ask for relatively neutral, descriptive
information - at the beginning.
• Respondents can be asked to provide basic descriptive information about
the phenomenon of interest (a program, activity, or experience, or to
chronicle their history with the phenomenon of interest).
• This information lays the foundation for questions that access the
interviewee’s perceptions, opinions, values, emotions, and so on.
• The best way to tell whether the order of your questions work or not is to
try it out in a pilot interview.
In summary
• To collect meaningful data a researcher must ask good
questions.
• More open-ended your questions are the better.
• Having fewer broader questions unhooks you from the interview
guide and enables you to really listen to what your participant
has to share, which in turn enables you to better follow avenues
of inquiry that will yield potentially rich contributions.
Beginning The
Interview
Beginning The Interview
• First of all, determining whom to interview.
• Then, how can such people be identified?
• through initial on-site observation of the program, activity, or
phenomenon under study. On-site observations often involve informal
discussions with participants to discover those who should be
interviewed in depth.
• A second means of locating contacts is to begin with a key person who
is considered knowledgeable by other and then ask that person for
referrals.
• preliminary interview (temuduga pendahuluan) is necessary to
determine whether the person meets the criteria for participating in
the study
Beginning The Interview
Taylor and Bogdan (1984) list five issues that should be addressed at the
outset of every interview.
1. The investigator’s motives and intentions and the inquiry’s purpose.
2. The protection of respondents through the use of pseudonyms (false
name).
3. Deciding who has final say over the study’s content.
4. Payment (if any).
5. Logistics with regard to time, place, and number of interviews to be
scheduled. (pp. 87-88)
Beginning The Interview
• Assume neutrality (perihal berkecuali) with regards to the
respondent’s knowledge; regardless of how antithetical
(opposing) to the interviewer’s beliefs or values the respondent’s
position might be, it is crucial for the success of the interview to
avoid arguing, debating, or otherwise letting personal views be
known.
• Patton (2002) distinguishes between neutrality and rapport.
• Rapport is a stance vis-à-vis (in relation to) the person being
interviewed.
• Neutrality is a stance vis-à-vis the content of what the person
says” (p 365, emphasis in original).
Beginning The Interview
• Several ways of maximizing the time spent getting an information to
share information.
• A slow-starting interview for example, can be moved along by asking
respondents for basic descriptive information about themselves, the
event, or the phenomenon under study.
• Interviews aimed at constructing life-histories can be augmented by
written narrative, personal documents, and daily activity logs that
informants are asked to submit ahead of time.
• The value of an interview, of course, depends on the interviewer’s
knowing enough about the topic to ask meaningful question in
language easily understood by the informant.
 Recording and
Transcribing Interview
Data
Recording and Transcribing Interview Data
Three basic ways to record interview data:
1) Tape record (Rakaman peta)
• This practice ensures that everything said is preserved for analysis. The
interviewer can also listen for ways to improve his or her questioning
technique.
• Malfunctioning equipment and a respondent’s uneasiness with being
recorded are the drawbacks.
• Occasionally interviews are videotaped. This practice allows for recording
of nonverbal behavior, but it is also more cumbersome and intrusive than
tape recording the interview.
Recording and Transcribing Interview Data
2) Take notes (Buat/ambil nota).
• Since not everything said can be written down and since at the outset of a
study a researcher is not certain what is important enough to write down,
this method is recommended only when mechanical recording is not
feasible.
• Some investigators like to take written notes in addition to taping the
session.
• The interviewer may want to record his or her reactions to something the
informant says, to signal the informant of the importance of what is being
said, or to pace the interview.
Recording and Transcribing Interview Data
3) Write down as much as can be remembered as soon after the interview
as possible.
• The problems with this method are obvious, but at times, writing or
recording during an interview might be intrusive (when interviewing
terminally ill patients, for example).
• In any case, researchers must write their reflections (pandangan)
immediately following the interview.
• These reflections might contain insights (pemahaman) suggested by the
interview, descriptive notes on the behavior, verbal and nonverbal, of the
informant, parenthetical thoughts (buah fikiran) of the researcher, and so
on.
• Post-interview notes (nota pasca temuduga) allow the investigator to
monitor the process of data collection as well as begin to analyze the
information itself.
References for Part 1
1. Dexter, L.A. (1970). Elite and specialize interviewing. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
2. Krueger, R.A. (2008). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
3. Marshall, C., & Rossman, G.B. (2006). Designing qualitative research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
4. Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco CA:
Jossey-Bass.
5. Patton , M. Q. (2002). Qualitative Research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
6. Roulton, K. (2007). Theorizing qualitative interview. Paper presented at the meeting of the 3rd
International Congress of Qualitative Inquiry, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL.
7. Seidman, I.E. (1991). Interviewing as qualitative research. New York: Teachers College Press.
8. Stewart, D.W., Shamdasani, P.N., & Rook, D.W. (2006). Focus groups: Theory and practice (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
9. Strauss, A., Schatzman, L., Bucher, R., & Sabshin, M. (1981). Psychiatric ideologies and institutions (2nd
ed.). New York: Wiley.
10. Taylor, S.J., & Bogdan, R. (1984), Introduction to qualitative research methods (2nd ed.). New York:
Wiley.
 Part 2
Collecting Qualitative Data:
Observation
Learning outcomes Part 2
• Able to describe what to observe.
• Able to discuss the relationship between observer and
observed.
• Able to describe ways of recording observation.
Observation
• What to Observe?
• Relationship between Observer and Observed
• Recording Observation
What to Observe?
What to observe is determined by several factors:
• The most important is the researcher’s purpose in conducting
the study in the first place.
• In other words, the theoretical framework, the problem, and
the questions of interest determine what is to be observed.
• Certain behavior is difficult to observe; further, a researcher must have
the time, money, and energy to devote to observation and must be
allowed to observe by those in the situation of interest.
• Observers need to be open to early impressions and feelings about what
is going on in a setting because it is these early impressions that help
determine subsequent patterns of observation.
• The researcher can decide ahead of time to concentrate on observing
certain events, behaviors, or persons.
• A code sheet might be used to record instances of specified behavior.
• Less structured observations can be compared to a television camera
scanning the area. Where to begin looking depends on the research
question, but where to focus or stop action cannot be determined
ahead of time.
• The focus must be allowed to emerge and in fact may change over the
course of the study.
Here is a checklist of elements likely to be present in any setting (What
things to observe?):
1. The Physical setting:
• what is the physical environment like?
• What is the context?
• What kind of behavior is the setting designed for?
• How is space allocated?
• What object, resources, technologies are in the setting? The
principal’s office, the school bus, the cafeteria and the classroom vary
in physical attributes as well as in the anticipated behavior.
2. The Participants:
• describe who is in the scene, how many people, and their roles.
• What brings these people together? Who is allowed here? Who is not
here who would be expected to be here?
• What are the relevant characteristics of the participants?
• Further, what are the ways in which the people in this setting organize
themselves? “Patterns and frequency of interactions, the direction of
communication patterns... and changes in these patterns tell us things
about the social environment” (Patton, 2002, p. 283).
3. Activities and interactions:
• what is going on ? Is there a definable sequence of activities?
• How do the people interact with the activity and with one another?
How are people and activities connected?
• What's norms or rules structure the activities and interactions?
• When did the activity begin? How long does it last?
• Is it a typical activity, or unusual?
4. Conversations:
• what is the content of conversations in this setting?
• Who speaks to whom? Who listens?
• Quoting directly, paraphrase, and summarize conversations.
• If possible, use a tape recorder to back up your note-taking.
• Note silences and nonverbal behavior that add meaning to the
exchange.
5. Subtle factors:
less obvious but perhaps as important to the observation area
• Informal and unplanned activities
• Symbolic and connotative meanings of words
• Nonverbal communication such as dress and physical space
• Unobtrusive measures such as physical clues
• “What does not happen”- especially if ought to have happened
(Patton, 2002, p. 295, emphasis in original)
6. Your own behavior:
• you are as much a part of the science as participants.
• How is your role, whether as an observer or an intimate participant,
affecting the science you are observing?
• What do you say and do?
• In addition, what thoughts are you having about what is going on?
These become “ observer comments,” an important part of field
notes.
• There is no ideal amount of time to spend observing, nor is there one
preferred pattern of observation.

• For some situations, observation over an extended period may be

more appropriate;

• for others, shorter periodic observations make the most sense given
the purpose of the study and practical constraints.
• Most writers do recommend that when learning to do field work, sessions
of an hour or less are recommended.

• Observations take enormous energy and concentration.

• Further, it is recommended that you allow for writing up your field notes
as soon after the observation as possible.
The process of collecting data through observations can be broken
into the three stages :
• entry,
• data collection, and
• exit.
Entry
• Gaining entry into a site begins with gaining the confidence and
permission of those who can approve the activity .

• This step is most easily accomplished through a mutual contact

who can recommend the researcher to the “gatekeepers”
involved.
Entry
• Bogdan and biklen (2007) point out that most groups will want answers to
the following :
• What are you actually going to do?
• Will you be disruptive?
• What are you going to do with your findings?
• Why us? Why have “ they or their organizations” being “singled out of
study”? (P. 88)
• What will we get out of this? (Pp. 87-88)
• Being prepared to answer these questions as candidly as possible, being
persistent, and being able to adjust to the modifications in your original
request will increase your chances of gaining entry.
Data Collection
• Once you (the researcher) become familiar with the setting and
begin to see what is there to observe, serious data collection can
begin.

• It takes great concentration to observe intently (attentively),

remember as much as possible, and then record in as much detail
as possible what has been observed.

• Conducting an observation, even a short one, can be exhausting,

especially in the beginning of a study.
Data Collection
• Everyone and everything is new; you do not know what will be
important, so you try to observe everything; you are concerned
about the effect you will have on the scene; you miss things while
taking notes, and so on.

• It is probably best to do more frequent, shorter observations at

first.

• The more familiar everything feels and the more comfortable

you in the setting, the longer you will be able to observe.
Exit
• Leaving the field, however, may be even more difficult than gaining entry.

• “ Bogdan and Biklen (2007, p. 116) suggest that “ rather than abruptly
ending this phase of…. Research… ease out of the field by coming less
frequently and then eventually stopping altogether”.

• In any case “all field workers, novices and the more experienced, still worry
about whether they got it all and got it right.

• No one gets it all, of course. But researchers ask themselves whether they
have captured the range and the variety of patterns relevant to their
topics” (Preissle & Grant, 2004, p. 180).
Recording Observation
• What is written down or mechanically recorded from a period
of observation becomes the raw data from which a study’s
findings eventually emerge.
• This written account of the observation constitutes field notes,
which are analogous (similar) to the interview transcript.
• In both forms of data collection, the more complete the
recording, the easier it is to analyse the data.
• How much can be captured during an observation? The answer
depends on the researcher’s role and the extent to which he or
she is a participant in the activity.
• Even if the researcher has been able to take detailed notes
during an observation, it is imperative that full notes in a
narrative format be written, typed, or dictated as soon after the
observation as possible.
• It takes great self-discipline to sit down and describe something
just observed.
• The observation itself is only half the work and generally more
fun than writing extensive field notes on what has just occurred.
• It is also highly likely that actually writing field notes will take
longer than time spent in observation.
Taylor and Bogdan (1984) offer some suggestions for recalling
data: Later recall will be helped if during an observation
investigators.
• Pay attention
• Shift from a “wide angle” to a “narrow angle” lens-that is
focusing “on a specific person, interaction, or activity, while
mentally blocking out all the others” (p.54)
• Look for key words in people’s remark that will stand out
later
• Concentrate on the first and last remarks in each
conversation
• Mentally play back remarks and scenes during breaks in the
talking observing
• Once the observation is completed, they suggest the following:
leave the setting after observing as much as can be
remembered;
• Record field notes as soon as possible after observing; in case of
a time lag between observing and recording, summarize or
outline the observation; draw a diagram of the setting and trace
movements through it, and incorporate pieces of data
remembered at later times into the original field notes (Taylor and
Bogdan, 1984).
• Field notes based on observation need to be in a format that will
allow the researcher to find desired information easily.
• Formats vary, but a set of notes usually begins with the time,
place, and purpose of the observation.
• It is also helpful to list the participants present or at least to
indicates how many and what kinds of people are present -
described in ways meaningful to the research.
• Field notes should be highly descriptive.
• What is described are the participants, the setting, the
activities or behaviours of the participants, and what the
observer does.
• By highly descriptive, I mean that enough detail should be
given that researcher feel as if they are there, seeing what
the observer sees.
• For example, instead of saying “The conference room was
neat and orderly.” You should write, “The four tables in the
conference room were moved together to form a neat square
with three chairs per table. Materials for the meeting were in
blue notebook covers and placed on the tables, three to a
table, and one in front of each chair. In the centre of each
table was a pitcher of water and three glasses.
• There is also an important reflective component of field notes.
• This reflective component is captured in observer commentary,
indicated by being set apart from the description either in the
right or left margins or in brackets in the commentary itself.
• Reflective comments can include the researcher’s feeling,
reactions, hunches, initial interpretations, speculations, and
working hypotheses.
• These comments are over and above factual descriptions of
what is going on; they are comments on and thoughts about the
setting, people, and activities.
• In raising questions about what is observed or speculating as to
what it all means, the researcher is actually engaging in some
preliminary data analysis
• The content of field notes usually includes the following:
• Verbal description of the setting, the people, the activities
• Direct quotations or least the substance of what people said
• Observer’s comments (OC)-put in the margins or in the
running narrative and identified by underlining, italics, or bold
and bracketing, and the initial “OC”
References for Part 2
1. Adler, P. A. & Adler, P. (1998). Preadolescent Culture and Identity. Rutgers
University Press.
2. Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. k. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An
introduction to theories and methods. Boston: Pearson.
3. Gans, H. J. (1982). The Urban Vilagers. Free Press.
4. Gold, R. (1958). Roles in Sociological Field Observations. Social Forces.
Vol.36. p 217 - 223.
5. Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
implementation. San Francisco CA: Jossey-Bass.
6. Patton , M. Q. (2002). Qualitative Research and evaluation methods (3rd
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
7. Taylor, S.J., & Bogdan, R. (1984), Introduction to qualitative research
methods (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.
 Part 3
Collecting Qualitative Data:
DOCUMENTS

90
Topics for Part 3
• Mining Data from Documents
• Types of Documents
• Using Documents in Qualitative Research
• Limitation and Strength of Documents

91
Learning Outcomes for Part 3
• Able to mine data from documents.
• Able to describe the various types of document.
• Able to explain how to use document in qualitative research,
• Able to explain the strength and limitation of documents

92
Mining Data from
Documents
• Documents are usually produced for reasons other than the
research at hand and therefore are not subject to the some
limitations.
• The presence of documents does not intrude upon or alter
the setting in ways that the presence of the investigator often
does.
• Nor are documents dependent upon the whims of human
beings whose cooperation is essential for collecting good
data through interviews and observations .

94
• Documents are, in fact, a ready-made source of data easily accessible
to the imaginative and resourceful investigator.
• Documents, as the term is used in this unit, also include what LeCompte
and Preissle (1993) define as artifacts - “symbolic materials such as
writing and signs and nonsymbolic materials such as tools and
furnishings” (p.216).

95
• Artifacts are “things” or objects in the environment differentiated from
documents that represent some from of communication (e.g official
records, newspapers, diaries).

• Documents include just about anything in existence prior to the

research at hand.

• Common documents include official records, letters, newspaper

accounts, poems, songs, corporate records, government documents,
historical accounts, diaries, autobiographies and so on.

• Photographs, film and video can also be used as data sources as can
physical evidence or traces (Lee, 2000; Webb et.al.,2000).
96
Types of Documents

97
Types of Documents
1. Public records
2. Personal documents
3. Popular culture documents
4. Visual documents
5. Physical material/ Artifacts
6. Researcher-generated documents

98
1. Public records
• Public records are the official, on going records of a society’s activities.
• As Guba and Lincoln (1981) note, “the first and most important
injunction to anyone looking for official records is to presume that if an
event happened, some record of its exists” (p. 253).
• Public documents include actuarial records of births, deaths, and
marriages, the census reports, police records, court transcripts, agency
records, association manuals, program documents, mass media,
government documents, and so on.

99
Example
For those interested in educational questions, there are numerous
sources of public documents –
• discussions of educational issues and bills in the
Congressional Record; federal, state, and private agency
reports; individual program records; and the statistical
database of the Center for Educational Statistics.

100
Example
• Since many case studies are at the program level, it is particularly
important to seek out the paper trail for what it can reveal about the
program -“things that cannot be observed,” things “that have taken
place before the evaluation began.

• Ideally this paper trail includes “all routine records on clients, all
correspondence from and to program staff, financial and budget records,
organizational rules, regulations, memoranda, charts, and any other
official or unofficial documents generated by or for the program” (p.293).

• Such documents are valuable “not only because of what can be learned
directly from them but also as stimulus for paths of inquiry that can be
pursued only through direct observation and interviewing“ (p.294).
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Example
If you were you interested in studying the role of parent involvement in a
neighbourhood school,
for example, you could look for public record documents in the form of
the following:
• notices sent home to parents;
• memos between and among teachers, staff, and the parents’
association;
• formal policy statements regarding parent involvement;
• school bulletin boards or other displays featuring aspects of parent
involvement;
• newspaper and other media coverage of activities featuring parent
involvement; and any official records of parent attendance or
presence in the school.
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1. Public records
• Other sources of public information that are easily accessible but often
overlooked include previous studies and data “banks” of information.
• An example of a data bank that is a potentially useful in qualitative
research, especially ethnographic studies (see Unit 2 ), is the Human
Relations Area File (Murdock, 1983).
• This file is a compilation of ethnographic studies of more than 350
societies; data are classified and coded by cultural group and also by
more than 700 topics.
• Types of documents found in this file include ethnographer field notes,
diary entries, reports to various agencies, books, newspaper articles,
works of fiction about the culture, and photographs.

103
2. Personal documents
• Personal documents “refer to any first- person narrative that
describes an individual’s actions, experiences, and beliefs”
(bogdan and biklen , 2007 ,p.133).
• Such documents include diaries, letters, home video, children’s
growth records, scrapbooks and photo albums, calendars,
autobiographies, and travel logs.
• Personal documents are a reliable sources of data concerning a
person’s attitudes, beliefs, and view of the world.

104
2. Personal documents
• Burgess (1982) notes: The field researcher needs to consider:
• Is the material trustworthy?
• Is the material atypical?
• Has the material been edited and refined?
• Does the autobiographical material only contain highlights of
life that are considered interesting?
• Furthermore, it provides and account that is based on the
author’s experience. (p.132)

105
Example
• An entire study can be based on personal documents,
Abramson’s (1992) case study of Russian Jewish emigration is
based solely on his grandfather’s diaries written over a twelve-
year period.
• A well-known earlier study of Polish immigrant life relied
heavily upon personal letters written between immigrants and
relatives in Europe (Thomas & Znaniecki, 1927).
• Many of these letters were obtained by placing ads in local
newspapers asking for them.

106
3. Popular culture documents
• Popular media forms such as television, film, radio, newpapers, literary
works, photography, cartoons, and more recently the Internet are
sources of “public “ data.

• Mass communication materials are especially good sources for dealing

with questions about some aspect of society at a given time, for
comparing groups on a certain dimension, or for tracking culture change
and trends.

• The changing nature of U.S. presidential political campaigns, for example,

could be looked at through the medium of televised debates, with the
2008 campaign incorporating YouTube Internet technology.

107
3. Popular culture documents
Bogdan and Biklen (2007) offer some advise when using popular culture as a
data source:
• Of all the thousands of hours of commercial videos, films, and popular
record as well as the millions upon millions of printed words and
pictures that appear each day in the media, how do you ever narrow
down the scope to make your task manageable …..Think small.
• Most people who read research do not expect the researcher to cover
the universe, pick a particular program, or a particular event , and
work on it intensely rather than spreading yourself too thin (p.65).

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4. Visual documents
• Film, video, and photography are visual documents.
• Although there has been renewed interest in visual materials film and
photography have had a long history in anthropology dating back to the
turn of the twentieth century (Pink,2006).
• Most famous perhaps were the early 1940s film and photography of
Balinese culture by anthropologists Bateson and Mead.
• However, despite their “innovative and landmark text in
anthropology ,”it” failed to achieves its potential to persuade
anthropologists of the time of the value of systematic visual research
and analysis” (Pink,2006,p.9) .

109
4. Visual documents
• Film has some obvious strengths and limitations.
Strengths
• This form of data collection captures activities and events as
they happen, including “nonverbal behaviour and
communication such as facial expressions, gestures, and
emotions” (Marshall & Rossman.2006,p.121.).

110
4. Visual documents
Limitations
• What can be captured on film is only “limited by what the mind
can imagine and the camera can record” (p.121).
• cost and the need for the researcher to have some technical
expertise,
• and it can be intrusive (although as “reality” television shows
attest, the camera is soon forgotten in many situations).

111
4. Visual documents
• Photographs can also be generated by the researcher.
Strengths
• provide a “means of remembering and studying detail that
might be overlooked if a photographic image were not available
for reflection” (Bogdan & Biklen ,2007, p.151).
• “photo elicitation”, in which participants are shown various
photos of the topic of interest in order to stimulate discussion
of the topic (Harper, 2002) .

112
4. Visual documents
Limitations
• Harper (2003,p.195) reminds us, however, that “In all examples
of photo elicitation research, the photograph loses it claim to
objectivity.
• Indeed, the power of the photo lies in its ability to unlock the
subjectivity of those who see the image differently from the
researcher.”

113
5. Physical material/Artifacts
• Physical material as a form of document, broadly defined,
consists of physical objects found within the study setting.
• Anthropologists typically refer to these objects as artifacts,
which include the tools, implements, utensils, and instruments
of everyday living.
• Hodder (2003) includes artifacts and written texts that have
physically endured over time as “mute evidence” in the study of
culture. “such evidence, unlike the spoken word, endures
physically and thus can be separated across space and time from
its author, producer, or user” (p.155).

114
5. Physical material/Artifacts
• Physical trace material is yet another potential source of
information.
• Physical traces consist of changes in the physical setting
brought about by the activities of people in that setting.
• Because physical traces can usually be measured, they are most
often suited for obtaining information on the incidence and
frequency of behavior.

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5. Physical material/Artifacts
• Other advantages of using trace measures are noted by Rathje
(1979, pp. 78-79):
• Trace measures record the results of actual behavior, not
reported or experimental approximations.
• Trace measures are usually nonreactive and unobtrusive. Since
they are applied after behavior has occurred they do not modify
the behavior they seek to study.
• Material traces are ubiquitous (ever present) and readily
available for study.

116
5. Physical material/Artifacts
• Because material traces are applied to inanimate (nonliving)
objects, they usually require minimal cooperation and
inconvenience from human subjects.
• Because the number of measures of traces depends upon the
recorder’s interest rather than informant patience, a variety of
interrelated behavior can often be studied at once.
• Because of the minimal inconvenience and expense to
informants, trace measures can be used over long time period
as longitudinal monitoring devices.

117
6. Researcher-generated documents
• are documents prepared by the researcher or for researcher by
participants after the study has begun.
• The specific purpose for generating documents is to learn more about
situations, persons, event being investigated.
• The researcher might request that someone keep a diary or log of
activities during the course of the investigation. Or a life history of an
individual or historical account of a program might be solicited (asked)
to illuminate the present situation.
• And as discussed above, photographs taken by the researcher or the
participants can be valuable sources of data.

118
6. Researcher-generated documents
• Quantitative data produced by the investigator also fall into this
category of documents.
• Projective tests, attitudinal measures, content examinations,
statistical data from surveys on any number of topics - all can
be treated as documents in support of a qualitative
investigation.

119
6. Researcher-generated documents
• In summary then, documents include a broad range of materials
available to the researcher who in creative in seeking them out.
• Literally millions of public and private documents, as well as
physical traces of human behavior, can be use as primary or
secondary sources of data.
• Further, documents can be generated by the researcher once the
study has begun.

120
Using Documents in Qualitative
Research
• Using documentary material as data is not much different from using
interviews or observations.

• Glaser and Strauss (1967) compare fieldwork with library research.

“when someone stands in the library stacks, he is, metaphorically,
surrounded by voices begging to be heard. Every book, every magazine
article, represents at least one person who is equivalent to the
anthropologist’s informant or the sociologist’s interviewee.

• In those publications, people converse, announce positions, argue with a

range of eloquence, and describe events or scenes in ways entirely
comparable, to what is seen and heard during fieldwork” (p. 163)

122
• Whether in fieldwork or library work, the data collection is guided by
questions, educated hunches, and emerging findings.
• Although the search is systematic, both settings also allow for the
accidental (unplanned) uncovering of valuable data.
• Tracking/tracing down leads (clues/information), being open to new
insight, and being sensitive (thoughtful/attentive) to the data are the
same whether the researcher is interviewing, observing, or analyzing
documents.
• Since the investigator is the primary instrument for gathering data, he or
she relies on skills and intuition to find and interpret data from
documents.

123
• Finding/locating relevant materials is the first step in the process.
• Besides the setting itself, the logical places to look are libraries,
historical societies, archives, and institutional files.
• Other have located personal documents like letters and diaries by
placing advertisements in newspapers and newsletters or on relevant
Internet sites.

124
• Once documents have been located, their authenticity/genuineness must be
assessed.
• “The author, the place and the date of writing all need to be established and
verified/confirmed”(McCulloch, 2004, p. 42).
• In addition, the conditions under which the documents was produced is important
to ascertain/determine, if possible.
• In evaluating an artifact - that is, an object used or produced by a particular cultural
group - LeCompte and Preissle (1993) suggest that the researcher ask such
questions as:
• What is the history of its production and use?
• How is its use allocated (assigned)?
• Is its selection biased?
• How might it be distorted (inaccurate) or falsified (fake/forged)?

125
• Determining the authenticity (truth) and accuracy (correctness) of
documents is part of the research process.
• It is the investigator’s responsibility to determine as much as possible
about the documents, its origins and reasons for being written, its
author and the context in which it was written.

126
The authenticity of documents:
• Guba and Lincoln (1987) list the questions a researcher might ask about the
authenticity of documents:
• What is the history of the documents?
• How did it come into my hands?
• What guarantee is there that it is what it pretends to be?
• Is the document complete, as originally constructed?
• Has it been tampered with or edited?
• If the document is genuine, under what circumstances and for what purposes was it
produced?
• Who was/is the author?
• What was he trying to accomplish? For whom was the document intended?

127
The authenticity of documents:
• What were the maker’s sources of information? Does the document
represent an eyewitness account, a secondhand account, a
reconstruction of an event long prior to the writing, an interpretation?
• What was or is the maker’s bias?
• To what extent was the writer likely to want to tell the truth?
• Do other documents exit that might shed additional light on the same
story, event, project, program, context? If so, are they available,
accessible? Who holds them? (pp. 238-239)

128
Primary resources
Primary resources
• are those in which the originator of the document is recounting firsthand
experience with the phenomenon of interest.
• The best primary sources are those recorded closet in time and place to
the phenomenon by a qualified person.
• Given this definition, most personal documents and eyewitness accounts
of social phenomena could be considered primary resources.

129
Secondary sources
Secondary sources
• are reports of phenomenon by those who have not directly experienced the
phenomenon of interest; these are often compiled at a later date.
• Interestingly, the same documents could be classified as primary or secondary
depending upon the purpose of the study.
• The diary of a loved one caring for someone with terminal cancer, for example, would
be a primary sources data for a study on caretaking; it would be considered a
secondary sources data for understanding how patients themselves cope with a
terminal disease.

130
• After assessing the authenticity and nature of documents or
artifacts, the researcher must adopt some system for coding
and cataloging them.

• If at all possible, written documents should be copied and

artifacts photographed and videotaped.

• By establishing basic descriptive categories early coding, the

researcher will have easy access to information in the analysis
and interpretation stage.

131
• In qualitative studies, a form of content analysis is used to analyze
documents.

• Essentially, content analysis is a systematic procedure for describing

the content of communications.

• Historians and literary critics have long used content analysis to analyze
historical documents and literary works.

• Modern content analysis has most often been applied to

communication media (newspapers, periodicals, television, film) and
has had strong quantitative focus.

132
• A major concern has been measuring the frequency and variety of
messages and confirming hypotheses.

• Most research design using content analysis are sequential in

nature-“moving from category construction to sampling, data collection,
data analysis and interpretation” (Altheide, 1987, p.68).

• Data collection and coding are often carried out by novices (beginners)
using protocols and trained to count units of analysis.

133
Limitation and Strength of
Documents
Limitation of Documents
1) Preferences for other sources of data may reflect a researcher’s uncertainty about
potential of document for yielding knowledge and insight.
• The materials may be incomplete from a research perspective.
• Whether personal account or official documents are involved the source may
provide unrepresentative samples.
• Often no one on the project keeps very good notes on processes, few memoranda
are generated, and, even more often, the only writing that is done is in response to
funders’ requests for technical reports or other periodic statements about the
progress of the program or project.

135
Limitation of Documents
2) Because documents are not produced for research purposes, the information they
offer may not be in a form that is useful (or understandable) to the investigator.

• Furthermore, such data may be incongruent (different) with emerging findings

based on observational or interview data.
• This is, of course, more of a problem when documents are used as secondary data
sources to verify findings based on other data.
• If documents are used as part of the process of inductively building categories and
theoretical constructs as in qualitative case studies, then their “fit” with pre-
established concepts or models is less of a concern.

136
Limitation of Documents
3) Authenticity and accuracy.
• Even public records that purport to be objective and accurate contain
built-in biases that a researcher may not be aware of.
• Personal documents are subject to purposeful or non-purposeful
deception.
• Distortion in personal documents may be unintentional in that the
writer is unaware of his or her biases or simply does not remember
accurately.

137
Limitation of Documents
4. Because they are produced for reasons other than research,
• they may be fragmentary (incomplete),
• they may not fit the conceptual framework of the research,
and
• their authenticity may be difficult to determine.

138
Strength of Documents
• To begin with, they may be the best sources of data on a particular
subject, better than observations or interviews.

• Many documents are easily accessible, free, and contain information

that would take an investigator enormous time and effort to gather
otherwise.

• Other situations where documents are likely to be the best sources of

data would be studies that rely on technical expertise such as medical
reports, and studies of intimate personal relationship that cannot be
observed or that people are reluctant to discuss.

139
Strength of Documents
• The data can furnish descriptive information, verify emerging
hypotheses, advance new change and development, and so on.

• One of the greatest advantages in using documentary material is its

stability. Unlike interviewing and observation, the presences of the
investigator does not alter what is being studied. Documentary data are
“objective” sources data compared to other forms.

140
Strength of Documents
• They are unaffected by the research process

• They are product of the context in which they were produced and
therefore grounded in the real world.

• Finally, many documents or artifacts cost little or nothing and are often
easy to obtain.

141
References for Part 3: Documentation
1. Abramson, P. R. (1992). A Case for Case Studies: An Immigrant’s Journal. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
2. Altheide, D. L. (1987). Reflections: Ethnographic Content Analysis. Qualitative Sociology. Vol. 10 (1). p 65–77.
3. Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. k. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theories and methods. Boston: Pearson.
4. Burgess, R. G. (1982). Approaches to field research. Field Research: A sourcebook and field manual, 1-14.
5. Glaser, B. G. & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Chicago: Aldine.
6. Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1981). Effective evaluation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
7. Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1987). The countenances of fourth-generation evaluation: Description, judgment, and negotiation. Palumbo, D., The
politics of program evaluation. Newbury Park ua: Sage, 202-234.
8. Harper, D. (2002). Talking about pictures: a case for photo elicitation. Visual studies, 17(1), 13-26.
9. Harper, D. (2003). Galileo to Neuromancer. Collecting and interpreting qualitative materials, 3, 176.
10. Hodder, I. (2003). The interpretation of documents and material culture.Collecting and interpreting qualitative materials, 2, 155-175.
11. LeCompte, M. D., & Preissle, J., with Tesch, R. (1993). Ethnography and qualitatitive design in educational research. (2nd ed.). Orlando, FL:
Academic Press.
12. Marshall, C. & Rossman, G. B. (2006). Designing Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks. California: Sage.
13. McCulloch, G. (2004). Documentary research: In education, history and the social sciences (Vol. 22). Routledge.
14. Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco CA: Jossey-Bass.
15. Pink, S. (2006). Doing visual ethnography. SAGE Publications Limited.
16. Rathje, W. L. (1979). Trace measures. Unobtrusive Measures Today: New Directions for Methodology of Behavioral Science, Jossey-Bass, San
Francisco, 75-91.
17. Thomas, W. I. i Florian Znaniecki.(1927). The Polish Peasant in Europe and America, 2.
18. Webb, E. J., Campbell, D. T., Schwartz, R. D., & Sechrest, L. (2000). Unobtrusive measures (Rev. ed.).
 Thank
you
For Listening