Presentation of Data

Chapter 2:
Presentation of data
 Tabulation methods
(frequency distributions)
 Graphical methods
(diagrams and graphs)
Tabulation methods
(frequency distributions)
Class limit /Class interval

it is defined as number or values of variables which describe the classes.
Open class interval
A class interval has either no upper class limit or on lower class limit
Class boundaries
Size of class interval (h)
Class mark/ mid point
 Construction of frequency distribution
Steps
1. Determine range (R)
2. Number of classes (k)
3. class interval (h)
Cumulative frequency(CF) distribution
A cumulative frequency distribution table is the same as a frequency distribution table with additional
columns that give the cumulative frequency.
The accumulation can be conducted either from the top class (or value), in which case the CF is called the
“less than” type CF, or from the bottom class (or value), which is known as the “more than” type CF.
Relative frequency and percentage frequency

While studying data of bulbs life ,we may want to know not only how long the bulbs last, but also what
proportion of the bulbs falls into each class of bulb’s life.
This is called the relative frequency (RF) of a particular observation or class and is found by dividing its
corresponding frequency (f) by the total number of observations n: that is:
RF = f/ n
A more clear measure is the percentage frequency, which is found by multiplying each relative frequency
value by 100. Thus:
PRF = RF×100
The PRF tells us about what percent of observations fall in a particular class. This gives us a bit clearer
picture than RF
Example
 Thirty energy saver light bulbs were tested to determine how long they usually last. The
results, to the nearest day, were recorded as follows:
 423 369 387 411 393 394 371 377 389 409 392 408 431 401 363 391 405 382 400 381 399
415 428 422 396 372 410 419 386 390
Construct a frequency distribution for these values.
Solution:
Range = Largest - Smallest = 431−363 = 68 Lets there be 8 classes, therefore
class interval is
h= Range / Number of classes
 = 68 / 8
 = 8.5 ≈ 10.0
Frequency distribution
Classes Tally Frequency (f)

360-369 II 2
370-379 III 3
380-389 IIII 5
390-399 IIII II 7
400-409 IIII 5
410-419 IIII 4
420-429 III 3
430-439 I 1
TOTAL Σf = n = 30
 Cumulative frequency (CF)
 Less than cumulative frequency
 more than cumulative frequency
 Relative frequency (RF)
 Percentage relative frequrncy (PRF)

Question
The following figures give the number of defects on 20 machines produced by a firm
6 7 5 7 7 8 7 6 9 7 4 10 6 8 8 9 5 6 4 8.
Construct a frequency table..
Graphical Methods
We now introduce the widely used graphic displays for data presentation in Engineering sciences.
Most of the time we want visual presentation of data because visual comparison provide more
sticking impression on mind than any other form.
Graphical methods provide the information about distribution, such as: symmetric, bell-shaped,
skewed, etc.
 Where are the data (center) located?

 How spread out are the data?
 Are the data symmetric or skewed?
 Are there outliers in the data?
Graphical Methods
1. Bar charts
 Simple bar chart
 Multiple bar chart
 Component bar chart
2 . Histogram
3. Dot plots
4. Stem and Leaf display
Histogram
 Histogram is a visual version of frequency table. The main purpose of a histogram is to enhance
the presentation of data.
 It consists of vertical bars, that represent di ﬀerent classes of a frequency table. Usually, there is
no space between adjacent bars. The height of bars indicates the frequency of classes. A
histogram can typically help you answer the following questions:
 What is the most frequent observation?
 What distribution (center, variation and shape) does the data have?
 Does the distribution of data look symmetric or is it skewed towards the left or right
Construct Histogram
 Class Boundaries
 Frequency
 construct a percentage relative frequency histogram by multiplying the relative frequencies

by 100
Diﬀerent shapes of histogram
Dot plots
 A dot diagram, also called a dot plot, is a statistical chart consisting of data
points plotted on a fairly simple scale. Dot plots are one of the simplest statistical
plots, and they are usually used for small data sets especially when data is
considered as discrete values.
 Each observation is represented by a dot above the corresponding location on a
horizontal measurement scale. When a value occurs more than once, there is a dot
for each occurrence, and these dots are stacked vertically.
 As with a stem-and-leaf display, a dotplot gives information about location,
spread, extremes, and gaps.
Dot
Example
 parts of a device considered under repairing

Stem and Leaf Displays
 The dot plot is a useful data display for small data up to 20 observations. However, when
the number of observations is moderately large, other graphical display may be more
useful.
 Stem and Leaf Displays is a good way to obtain an informative visual display of a data set
where each number consists of al least two digits.
 steps
1. Divide each number into two parts,
a stem , consisting of one or more of leading digits and
a leaf, consisting of the remaining digit.
2. List the stem values in a vertical column
3. record the leaf for each observation beside its stem
4. write the units for stem and leaves on the display
Stem and Leaf Displays for continuous data
 In the case of values with decimal points (continuous data), the decimal part in
each number is taken as leaf. Rounding may be used to suppress certain number
of decimal points so that all data values have the same number of decimal points.
Example
The stem-and-leaf plot of energy saver bulb data is constructed as below.
stem Leaves
36 39
37 127
38 12679
39 0123469
40 01589
41 0159
42 238
43 1
Further reading and exercises:
 Introduction and Section 1.2 of PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS by Devore’s book

and the examples there in. Then solve questions
 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17,18, 20, 24, 25, in exercise 1.2.
Chapter 3
Descriptive Statistics Measures of Central Tendency
 in engineering it is sometimes desirable to characterize some data by certain descriptive

measures. These measures, which take numerical values, can be easily communicated to other
and quantify the main characteristics of the data.
 descriptive measures are
1. measures of Central Tendency

2. Dispersion measures
3. Percentiles measures
Measures of Central Tendency

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Chapter 2:

Class limit /Class interval

Relative frequency and percentage frequency

Classes Tally Frequency (f)

 Less than cumulative frequency

 more than cumulative frequency

 Relative frequency (RF)

 Percentage relative frequrncy (PRF)

 Where are the data (center) located?

 construct a percentage relative frequency histogram by multiplying the relative frequencies

 parts of a device considered under repairing

 Introduction and Section 1.2 of PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS by Devore’s book

 in engineering it is sometimes desirable to characterize some data by certain descriptive

1. measures of Central Tendency

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