GJHeducation

OCR A-level Biology A

5.1.3 (c)
The generation and transmission of
nerve impulses in mammals
 Each of the 5 statements below has a numerical answer and that
number then corresponds to the position of the letter in the alphabet
(e.g. 5 = E). Start this lesson by converting FROM NUMBERS 2
LETTERS to uncover the part of a word which is going to come up a lot
today

 (Different nitrogenous bases found on RNA)2

 (Carbon atoms in deoxyribose) x 3

P O L A R
 Hydrogen atoms in a molecule of glucose
 Polynucleotide strands in RNA
 (Rows of phospholipids in the cell membrane layer) x 8

FROM NUMBERS 2 LETTERS

 When a cell membrane is more
negatively charged inside compared to
the outside it is said to be polarised.
The potential difference across the
membrane is therefore a negative
value (between -60mV and -70mV)
and this is the case when a neurone is
at rest and not conducting an action
potential which is known as resting
potential.
Due to the fact that this topic contains a large number of
key terms beginning with the letter P or at least have an
important part of the word that begins with this letter, it
might make sense to keep track of them during the lesson

Polarised
Resting potential
 Previous knowledge check
The maintenance of a negative membrane potential during
resting potential involves the movement of two ions across
the cell membrane by two methods of movement

State the two ions, the two methods of

movement and the structures which
are found in the cell membrane to
enable this movement (6 marks)
 Nerve cells have specialised channel proteins,
which possess a gate to open or close the
channel and are specific to sodium ions (Na+) or
specific to potassium ions (K+). Ions can move
into the axon or out of the axon through these
channels by facilitated diffusion. There are also
sodium/potassium pumps (carrier proteins)
which actively pump the ions across the
membrane
Maintaining
the resting
potential
 This might just prove useful……
Despite the fact that we are only looking at the
movement of Na+ and K+ ions, which are clearly both
positive ions, the membrane potential during resting
potential is actually negative. To understand how this
is possible, rather than simply considering where the
positive ions are, you need to compare how the
number of these positive ions inside the axon
compares against the number of positive ions that are
found outside of the axon. The number of ions on the
inside versus the outside wont be the same and
therefore this imbalance is the cause of the membrane
potential
 2 TO THINK ABOUT
You have 2 minutes to discuss with 1 person
The membrane potential at resting potential is negative
In order to have a negative
By focusing on the information
membrane potential, there that
was on the previous slide, discuss
must be a greater number of
how the numbers of ions on the
positive ions outside of
inside of the axon must comparethe
axon
againstthan
thosepositive ions of
on the outside inside
axon
ofmembrane
to give this the axonpotential
 5.1.3 (c)
QUIZ R1

Nearly all subjects

have a mathematical
element and Biology
is no different, so this
round is called “YOU
DO THE MATH!”
 YOU DO THE MATH!
There will be a number of editions of this round of
the competition over the next part of the lesson so
keep your eyes peeled for this particular background
and title!
On the next slide there are 2 statements and both of
them have numerical answers. There is a colon
between the statements, because the final answer is
a ratio! Buzz in when you are confident that you
have the ratio and if you’re correct, you’ll get 2
TEAM POINTS!
YOU DO THE MATH!
Bases which Hydrogen

3 2
are bonds
common to found
both DNA
: between
and adenine and
RNA thymine
 Maintaining the resting potential
The sodium/potassium pumps actively transport
3Na+ ions out of the axon for every 2K+ ions that
are pumped into the axon
The gated sodium ion channels are closed
preventing any Na+ ions from entering the axon
 1 TO THINK ABOUT
You have 2 minutes to discuss with 1 person
As a result of the pumps moving
The gated sodium ion channels are closed preventing any
Na+ ions from entering the axon
the K ions into the axon, the
+

concentration
Despite will
the sodium channels be
beinghigher
closed, aon
gated potassium channels are open and some K
few
+

the ions
inside of the
will move axon.diffusion.
by facilitated Therefore,
By
some
comparingK ions will move out of the
+the concentration of this particular ion
on the inside versus the outside and by using your
axon through
knowledge the of
of this method open channels
movement, discuss
by facilitated diffusion
which way the ions will move.
 Maintaining the resting potential
The sodium/potassium pumps actively transport
3Na+ ions out of the axon for every 2K+ ions that are
pumped into the axon
The gated sodium ion channels are closed
preventing any Na+ ions from entering the axon
Some K+ ions move out of the axon, through the
open potassium ion channels, by facilitated
diffusion
HIGHER than +ve ions on inside?

Number of positive
ions on the outside of
the axon

LOWER than +ve ions on inside?

 Maintaining the resting potential
The sodium/potassium pumps actively transport 3Na+ ions
out of the axon for every 2K+ ions that are pumped into the
axon
The gated sodium ion channels are closed preventing any
Na+ ions from entering the axon
Some K+ ions move out of the axon, through the open
potassium ion channels, by facilitated diffusion
The result is an imbalance, with a higher number
of positive ions on the outside of the axon when
compared to the number of positive ions on the
inside of the axon and this results in a negative
membrane potential
 In case you are interested……
In addition to the imbalance of positive
ions, the presence of negatively charged
anions inside the axon enhances the
potential difference across the membrane
and helps to further explain the membrane
potential being between -60mV and -70mV
at resting potential
 Understanding check
Check your understanding of the ions by using a
tick to show whether the concentration of these
ions is higher outside or inside the axon during
resting potential (2 marks)
Ion Higher concentration Higher concentration
outside of the axon inside the axon
Sodium ions (Na+)

Potassium ions (K+)

Large negatively charged

anions
THE NEXT
STEPS
As you can see from this
diagram, there are three
stages that come after resting
potential and before the
membrane returns to resting
potential in the generation
and transmission of a nerve
impulse.
Each of these stages involves
a change in membrane
potential as a result of ions
moving into or out of the
axon
Depolarisation
 3 TO THINK ABOUT
You have 5 minutes to discuss with 1 person
When the inside of a cell
During the maintenance of resting potential, the cell membrane is
more negatively charged inside compared to the outside and it is said
becomes less negatively charged
to be polarised.

compared
By consideringto thisthe outside,
description the and
of polarised cell
membrane
then focusing onisthe depolarised andduring
membrane potential this
depolarisation, discuss what a suitable description
is this
for due to the
section couldflow
be andof sodium
discuss ions
which ions will
bethrough
responsibleopen sodium
for this change channels
and which way they
will have moved to effect the change
into the axon
 The gated sodium channels at the start of the
neurone (known as the generator region) are
opened by the action of the synapse or a
sensory receptor like a Pacinian corpuscle as
covered in 5.1.3 (a). If a few of these channels
open, only a few sodium ions will enter the cell
and this will produce a small depolarisation
known as a generator potential.
When more gated channels are opened, the
generator potentials will combine to form a
larger depolarisation.
 Maybe surprisingly (or not), there’s yet another key term
to do with the transmission of nerve impulses which ends
in potential!

Brink Beginning
Edge Dawn

Verge
Onset

………………..
Spring into ACTION as you have just 2 minutes to use the 6 synonyms
to identify the word before the next task is revealed
 The __________
threshold
potential is the critical
level to which a
membrane potential
___________
must be depolarised if an
action potential is to
_______
be initiated
YOU DO THE MATH!
The remaining editions of this round will not
generate ratios but just straightforward
numerical answers. Study the mathematical
sign between the 2 statements and buzz in
when you have calculated the final answer.
This number needs to be a negative value so
put a minus in front of your answer to get the
2 TEAM POINTS!
YOU DO THE MATH!
The Q__
The membrane potential
Carbon
must
atomsexceed
in coefficient
the threshold
potential
the investigates
sugarsof -50mV in order
for
X
a depolarisation
found in
rate by
to result
increasing
in the
DNA andtransmission of an
temperature
RNAaction potential
by this °C
There are also sodium ion channels in
a neurone that are opened by changes
in potential difference across the
membrane. These are voltage-gated
channels. If the combination of
generator potentials is sufficient to
take the membrane potential above
the threshold potential then these
voltage-gated channels will open and
many sodium ions will flood in.
 Previous knowledge check
When there are sufficient generator potentials to reach the
threshold potential, the voltage-gated sodium channels will
open and the large influx of sodium ions increases the
depolarisation further

Use your prior knowledge of module 5.1.1 to state

the mechanism which is demonstrated by this
depolarisation (1 mark)
Positive feedback
A mechanism that increases a change and takes the system further
away from the optimum
YOU DO THE MATH!
The large influxfound
Chromosomes of sodium
in the
ions causes
nucleus of the depolarisation
a human skin cell
to peak at +40mV on the
-
inside of the cell. At this
point,
Carbon the neurone
atoms transmits
in a molecule
the action potential
of glucose
 YOUR TASKS

Challenge your understanding of the events that occur during the

depolarisation of a neurone by putting them into the correct order when:
#1 Large numbers of generator potentials combine to produce a larger
depolarisation
#2 A small number of generator potentials combine to produce a slightly
larger depolarisation

The start of this task involves a synapse and the chemical called acetyl
choline which diffuses across the gap before binding with the membrane
at the start of the neurone. If you don’t understand how this fits into the
events, ask your teacher for a push in the right direction
 The depolarisation of a neurone

Technically, this task should have produced the word “ALL” but that
E V E R Y T H I N G
only has 3 letters so it wouldn’t have been very useful in challenging
your knowledge of the order of events!
The “depolarisation” of a neurone

N O T H I N G
The all or nothing response shows that all nerve
impulses are identical and of the same
magnitude. Providing the stimulus causes the
membrane potential to exceed the threshold
potential, the influx of sodium ions through the
voltage-gated channels will lead to a
depolarisation that reaches +40mV and the
transmission and conduction of the action
potential along the whole length of the neurone.
If the depolarisation does not exceed the
threshold potential, there is simply no action
potential
1 TO THINK ABOUT (OVER & OVER)
You have 4 minutes to discuss with 1 person

The all or nothing response shows that all nerve impulses

are identical and of the same magnitude (+40mV).

So the strength of a stimulus doesn’t affect the

magnitude of the impulse but that doesn’t mean a
larger stimulus isn’t reflected in the conduction of
impulses. Discuss what other effect a larger
stimulus could possibly have and once you reckon
you have a plausible suggestion, repeat it over and
over to your discussion partner
 KEY POINT

The all or nothing response

refers to the fact that all nerve
impulses are identical.
Therefore a stronger stimulus
is not transmitted as a larger
potential but as more frequent
action potentials
 This might just prove useful……
Our ability to distinguish between quiet or loud sounds
can be explained by the frequency of transmission. A
stimulus with a higher intensity results in the opening
of more sodium ion channels in the sensory receptor,
which in this case will be the vibration receptors in the
cochlea of the ear. This produces more generator
potentials which results in more frequent action
potentials being conducted along the sensory neurone
to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe. The brain
interprets a higher frequency of action potentials as a
more intense stimulus and therefore a louder sound
 5.1.3 (c)
QUIZ R2

Today’s 2nd round will

still challenge your
numeracy skills but
there’s a little literacy
thrown in too!
FROM NUMBERS 2 LETTERS
Like you did way back at the start of the lesson, this round
sticks with the numerical theme as on the next slide there
are a series of statements which have a numerical answer.
However, this time that number corresponds to a letter of
the alphabet (e.g. 6 = F).
Your challenge is to convert FROM NUMBERS 2 LETTERS
and to be the 1st to buzz in with an acronym that we will
use to guide us through the next stage. If you do, your
reward is 2 TEAM POINTS

FROM NUMBERS 2 LETTERS

FROM NUMBERS 2 LETTERS
 Hydrogen bonds between cytosine and guanine

 (Cell divisions during meiosis)3

C H I M P
 (Cusps on the right atrioventricular valve)2

 (Hydrogen atoms in glucose) + 1

 (Normal diastolic blood pressure) ÷ 5

FROM NUMBERS 2 LETTERS

 This might just prove useful……
CHIMP
When constructing a description about the stages in
the generation and transmission of an action potential,
you could use this acronym to remind you of three
elements which need to be included….

CH – state the specific ion channel that opens (or

closes)
I – state which way the specific ions move as a result
MP – state how this affects the membrane potential

Let’s see this in action with depolarisation

 Seeing CHIMP in action!
A stimulus causes gated sodium channels to open in the
generator region of the neurone. As a concentration
gradient with more sodium ions on the outside of the axon
was maintained during resting potential, sodium ions will
now flow through the ion channels and into the axon by
facilitated diffusion, creating a generator potential.
Generator potentials combine to form a larger
depolarisation and if this exceeds the threshold potential,
voltage-gated sodium ion channels will open in the
membrane. A large influx of sodium ions causes the
membrane potential to become more positive on the inside
and the depolarisation will peak at a membrane potential
of +40mV.
 Previous knowledge check
Generator potentials combine to form a larger depolarisation and if
this exceeds the threshold potential, voltage-gated sodium ion
channels will open in the membrane. A large influx of sodium ions
causes the membrane potential to become more positive on the inside
and the depolarisation will peak at a membrane potential of +40mV.

State the specific position along a neurone where

these voltage gated ion channels will be found if
the impulse is being conducted along a sensory
neurone. Explain your answer (2 marks)
A sensory neurone is a myelinated neurone which means that any
parts of the axon that are wrapped in Schwann cells will be
electrically insulated. Therefore the ion channels, which allow the
influx of the sodium ions to cause the depolarisation to +40mV,
will only be found at the gaps between the Schwann cells known
as the nodes of Ranvier

nodes of Ranvier
 KEY POINT

The movement of ions in

and out of an axon, which is
essential for nervous
transmission, can only occur
at the nodes of Ranvier on a
myelinated neurone
 Previous knowledge check
The movement of ions in and out of an axon, which is
essential for nervous transmission, can only occur at the
nodes of Ranvier on a myelinated neurone

State the name for this method where the action

potential “jumps” from one node of Ranvier to the
next along a myelinated neurone (1 mark)

saltatory conduction
 This idea of the action potential “jumping” from one node of Ranvier
to the next node during saltatory conduction can be explained by local
currents.
When the sodium channels are open, sodium ions move into the axon
from the higher concentration outside to the lower concentration
inside. This causes the concentration of sodium ions to rise at the
point where the sodium ion channels are open.
However, the sodium ions will then continue to diffuse, but this time
sideways along the neurone. They diffuse away from the region of the
increased concentration and towards a lower concentration further
down the neurone, which will be near to the next node. The result is a
slight depolarisation. Channels that are opened by changes in the
potential difference are called voltage gated channels so these open at
the node, resulting in a rapid influx of sodium ions. This influx results
in a full depolarisation at this point which is further along the neurone
and as such the action potential has moved along the neurone (from
one node of Ranvier to the next node of Ranvier)
Repolarisation
depolarisation
 2 TO THINK ABOUT
You have 6 minutes to discuss with 1 person
Depolarisation peaks at +40mV and at this point an
action potential is transmitted

By focusing on the change in membrane potential

following depolarisation and during repolarisation,
start the CHIMP process by discussing which ion
channels must open and close and discuss which
way the specific ions will move as a result. Once
you feel confident, turn these verbal discussions
into a written description of repolarisation
 Repolarisation
At +40mV, the sodium ion channels
close and more* potassium ion
channels open. The potassium
ions move out of the axon by
facilitated diffusion and this brings
the membrane potential back to
negative inside compared with the
outside
 Use your knowledge of biological terminology and the
one remaining row in this crossword to identify the
name of the stage which comes after repolarisation and
before the return to resting potential
P P O L A R
O
L
A
R E P O L A R I S A T I O N
I
S
D E P O L A R I S A T I O N
D
 depolarisation
repolarisation

Hyperpolarisation
 As the potassium ion channels are slow to
close, potassium ions continue to leak out
of the axon. The potential difference
overshoots slightly, becoming more
negative than the membrane potential at
resting potential. This is hyperpolarisation
and the result is a period of time, called
the refractory period, during which it is
impossible to stimulate the cell membrane
to transmit another action potential.
 1 TO THINK ABOUT
You have 2 minutes to discuss with 1 person
InDuring
order thefor an action
refractory potential
period, to betoinitiated,
it is impossible stimulate
themembrane
the cell depolarisation has
to transmit to exceed
another the
action potential.
threshold potential.
Why impossible? By reading back through all of
As a result of hyperpolarisation,
your notes from today and by specifically focusing
the
membrane potential
on the essential is even further
requirements from this
for an action
thresholdtothan
potential it is at resting
be transmitted potential
and then and
conducted
therefore
along theitwhole
is impossible to stimulate
neurone, discuss the cell
why another
membrane
action tocannot
potential get thebemembrane
propagated potential
during the
refractory
back period
up to this level
 Understanding check
During the refractory period, it is impossible to
stimulate the cell membrane to transmit another
action potential.
Suggest two advantages for the nerve cells of having
this refractory period (2 marks)
• The cell has time to recover following the action potential. At this
point, the sodium and potassium ions are in the wrong place
which means that time is needed for the sodium/potassium
pumps to restore the concentration gradients of resting potential
• Ensures that action potentials are only transmitted in one
direction
 5.1.3 (c)
QUIZ R3

The 3rd and final round

and we are going to
finish with a competition
that ends in that all
important letter. That
means it is time for SNAP
THE RULES
A key term from this topic involving the
letter P and a definition or description will
appear on the board at the same time. If
they match, the first person to shout out
“SNAP” gets 2 TEAM POINTS. If they don’t
match, then stay silent. If anyone shouts
out “SNAP” when a matching pair isn’t
seen, they lose 2 TEAM POINTS.
GOOD LUCK!
 When the
membrane
potential
REPOLARISATION overshoots and
becomes even
more negative
inside than outside
 Formed when ions
GENERATOR flow through
POTENTIAL voltage gated
channels
 States that all
action potentials
ALL or NOTHING
are the same
PRINCIPLE
magnitude
(+40mV)
 Maintained by the
action of
sodium/potassium
RESTING
pumps and the
POTENTIAL
leakage of
potassium ions out
of the axon
 Ensures that action
potentials can be
REFRACTORY
transmitted in both
PERIOD
directions along a
neurone
 About -50mV and
must be exceeded
by the combined
THRESHOLD
generator
POTENTIAL
potentials for
voltage gated
channels to open
 Transmitted along
a neurone once
ACTION
the membrane
POTENTIAL
potential reaches
-50mV
 Mechanism that
reverses a change
POSITIVE
and brings the
FEEDBACK
system back to the
optimum
 When the inside of
the cell becomes
DEPOLARISATION less negatively
charged than the
outside