Starter

An infection by a strain of the

bacterium E. coli called O157 can lead to the
appearance of schistocytes in a blood sample.

Infections by this bacterium are the most

common cause of acute kidney failure in
children. This results in a condition
called HUS.

Most children who develop HUS make a full

recovery. A few children are left with
permanent kidney damage.

i. Name the short-term treatment given to

children with acute kidney failure
and outline the alternative long-term
treatment options that would be available if
necessary.
The answers
i)Named treatment for short term: Haemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis;

long term treatment- kidney transplant;

organ / donor detail

matched MHC antigens / blood groups between donor and recipient
OR
use of close relative to obtain tissue match
OR
ref to cadaver / xenotransplants;

recipient detail
use of immunosuppressant to prevent rejection;
idea of control of diet / low salt;

operation detail
connection of renal artery and vein / connection to
alternative artery (iliac) / old kidney left in place;

detail of alternative long term treatment peritoneal

dialysis
dialysis fluid introduced into abdominal cavity
OR
peritoneum acts as the partially permeable membrane
OR
reference to CCPD / described
Communication and homeostasis
Specification- 5.1.2
Specification
Neurones
• Nervous system contains billions
of specialised cells
• Neurones transmit electrical
impulses rapidly around the body
– Respond to changes in internal and
external environment
• Work together to carry
information from sensory
receptors
– To effectors
– Which carry out the response
 Structure of a neurone
• Cell body
– Contains the nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm
– Large quantities of ER and mitochondria
• Production of neurotransmitters
• Dendrons
– Short extensions from the cell body
– Divide into small extensions called dendrites
– Transmit electrical impulses towards cell body
• Axons
– Singular, elongated nerve fibres that transmit impulses
away from the cell body
– Can be very long- for example from fingertips to spinal
chord
– Cylindrical in shape
• Narrow strip of cytoplasm surrounded by plasma membrane
• May be only 1 µm
Types of neurones
 Types of neurones
• Sensory neurones
– Transmit impulses from a sensory neurone to a relay
neurone, motor neurone or the brain
– One dendron which carries the impulse to the cell
body
– One axon which carries the impulse away from the
cell body
• Relay neurones
– Transmit impulses between neurones
– Many short axons and dendrons
• Motor neurones
– Transmit impulses from a relay neurone or sensory
neurone to an effector
– One long axon
– Many short dendrites
 Myelinated neurones
• Axons of some neurones are covered in a
myelin sheath
– May layers of plasma membrane
• Schwann cells produce this by growing around
the axon many times
– Can be up to 20 layers when fully grown
• Myeline sheaf acts as an electrical insulator
– Allows conduction by the neurone to be at a much
greater speed
– 100m/sec against 1m/sec
• Between each Schwann cell there is a small gap
– 2-3µm called node of Ranvier
– The electrical impulse jumps from node to node
• Much faster
Your turn
1. State the difference between the
function of a motor and a
sensory neurone
2. Describe the difference in
structure between myelinated
and non-myelinated neurones
and the effects this causes
The answer
1. Sensory neurones transmit impulses to the
CNS / from receptor, motor neurones
transmit impulses away from the CNS / to
an effector.
2. Axon of a myelinated neurone is covered in
myelin (1);
– myelin is an electrical insulator;
– the sheath is formed by Schwann cells
growing around the axon several times;
– there are gaps in the myelin sheath known as
nodes of Ranvier;
– electrical impulse moves in a series of ‘jumps’
from one node to the next/saltatory conduction;
– impulse transmitted much faster than along an
unmyelinated axon.
Multiple sclerosis
• MS is a neurological disorder
affecting around 100,000 people in
the UK
• Most patients are between ages 20
and 40
• MS is known to be an autoimmune
disease. The immune system
mistakenly attacks the myeline sheath
• MS affects nerves in the brain and
spinal chord causing a range oy
symptoms
Questions
1. Suggest what symptoms may be
caused by MS
2. The population of the UK is 65
million. Calculate the proportion of
the population who suffer with MS
3. State what is meant by an
autoimmune disease
4. Describe the role of myeline in the
body
5. One symptom of MS is the loss of
vision in one eye. Suggest how this
might be caused
The answers
1. Muscle movement, balance, vision
2. 0.15%
3. A disease causing the body’s immune
system to attack its own cells
4. Speeds up transmission of nerve
impulses
5. Light energy detected by sensory
receptor/rod/cone cell in eye (1);
impulse does not reach CNS/brain or
impulse received too slowly (1); due
to sensory neurone axon being broken
down (1)
Sensory receptors
• Detect changes in its
environment
– Often located in sense organs
• All have two main features
– Specific to a single type of
stimulus
– Act as a transducer
• Convert stimulus into nerve impulse
• Called a generator potential
 Examples
Type of sensory Example of sense
Stimulus Example
receptor organ

Pressure
mechanoreceptor Pacinian corpuscle skin
movement

chemoreceptor chemicals Olfactory receptor nose

End bulbs of
thermoreceptor heat Tongue
Krause

photoreceptors light Cone cell eye

Pacinian corpuscle
• Detect mechanical pressure
– Locate deep within the skin
– Most abundant in the fingers and the
soles of the feet
• Also found within joints
– Know which joints are changing direction
• The end of the sensory neurone is
found within the centre of the
corpuscle
– Surrounded by layers of connective tissue
– Each layer separated by a layer of gel
Structure of the corpuscle
• Within the membrane there are
sodium ion channels
– Transport sodium ions across the
membrane
• The neurone ending in a PC has
a special type of sodium channel
– When these channels change shape
their permeability also changes
 How does it work
1. In its resting state the stretch-mediated ion
channels are too narrow to allow sodium ions
through
1. The neurone has a resting potential
2. When pressure is applied the corpuscle
changes shape. This causes the membrane
surrounding its neurone to stretch
3. The sodium channels widen so sodium can
diffuse in
4. The influx of sodium ions changes the
potential of the membrane- it becomes
depolarised. This is the generator potential
5. This creates an action potential that passes
along the sensory neurone
 Your turn
i. Why is the Pacinian corpuscle described
as a transducer?
ii. Deformation of the plasma membrane of
the tip of the neurone causes the
membrane to become more permeable to
Na+. Suggest why.
iii. The generation of an action potential
follows the ‘All-or-Nothing’ law. Explain
what this might mean.
iv. Describe how information about the
strength and intensity of a stimulus is
communicated to the brain.
The answers
1. it converts energy (mechanical) into, another /
different, form of energy (electrical);
2. (the increased pressure)
causes sodium (ion) channels to open so
(temporary) gaps / holes / spaces, appear,
between the phospholipids / in the bilayer;
3. if the, stimulus is not strong enough / threshold
(value) is not reached / depolarisation (of
membrane) is insufficient, then, it / an action
potential, is not, generated / AW; ora
4. idea that it is represented by the frequency of
the action potentials; high, frequency / rate (of
generation), of action potentials shows, a
strong / an intense, stimulus; ora
Describe the role of a sensory receptor in
the body Explain how your body detects that your
finger has touched a pin
State the transformation that takes place
in a cone cell

Rod cells are photoreceptor cells in the retina

of the eye that can function in lower light better
than the other type of visual photoreceptor,
Suggest why you see bright lights when cone cells. Cone cells detect coloured light
you rub your eyes Humans have many more cone cells than dogs
and cats

Suggest what this means for their visual

abilities
Answers

1. Detect stimuli (1); convert energy into a nervous

impulse (1)

2. Light energy is converted into a nervous

impulse/action potential (1)
Answers

• When you touch the pin it exerts mechanical pressure

on your skin (1);
• Pacinian corpuscle found within skin detects pressure
(1);
• pressure changes shape of Pacinian corpuscle (1);
• stretch-mediated sodium channel in neuronal
membrane stretches (1); channel widens (1);
• sodium ions diffuse into membrane (1); membrane is
depolarised/generator potential created (1);
• generator potential creates an action potential (1);
• action potential transmitted along neurones to
CNS/brain (1).
Answers

• Sensory receptors detects only one type of stimulus

• Rubbing the eyes stimulates cells in the eyes

• The brain doesn’t recognise that the stimulus is

different

• So perceives the pressure as light

 Answers

Dogs and cats can see better in low light levels as they
have more rods than cones
Humans have better colour vision as they have more cones that
detect coloured light