UNIT IV

VIRTUAL MEMORY
DEMAND PAGING
COPY-ON-WRITE
PAGE REPLACEMENT
ALLOCATION OF FRAMES
THRASHING
MEMORY-MAPPED FILES
ALLOCATING KERNEL MEMOR
 VIRTUAL MEMORY
• Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory from physical
memory
• Only part of the program needs to be in memory for execution
• Logical address space can therefore be much larger than physical address
space
• Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes
• Allows for more efficient process creation
• More programs running concurrently
• Less I/O needed to load or swap processes
 VIRTUAL MEMORY (CONT.)

• Virtual address space – logical view of how process is stored in

memory
• Usually start at address 0, contiguous addresses until end of space
• Meanwhile, physical memory organized in page frames
• MMU must map logical to physical

• Virtual memory can be implemented via:

• Demand paging
• Demand segmentation
VIRTUAL MEMORY THAT IS LARGER THAN PHYSICAL
MEMORY
 VIRTUAL-ADDRESS SPACE
 Usually design logical address
space for stack to start at Max
logical address and grow “down”
while heap grows “up”
• Maximizes address space
use
• Unused address space
between the two is hole
 No physical memory
needed until heap or
stack grows to a given
new page
 Enables sparse address spaces
with holes left for growth,
dynamically linked libraries, etc.
 System libraries shared via
mapping into virtual address
space
 Shared memory by mapping
pages read-write into virtual
address space
SHARED LIBRARY USING VIRTUAL MEMORY
 DEMAND PAGING
• COULD BRING ENTIRE PROCESS INTO MEMORY AT LOAD
TIME
• OR BRING A PAGE INTO MEMORY ONLY WHEN IT IS
NEEDED
• LESS I/O NEEDED, NO UNNECESSARY I/O
• LESS MEMORY NEEDED
• FASTER RESPONSE
• MORE USERS
• SIMILAR TO PAGING SYSTEM WITH SWAPPING (DIAGRAM
ON RIGHT)
• PAGE IS NEEDED  REFERENCE TO IT
• INVALID REFERENCE  ABORT
• NOT-IN-MEMORY  BRING TO MEMORY
• LAZY SWAPPER – NEVER SWAPS A PAGE INTO MEMORY
UNLESS PAGE WILL BE NEEDED
• SWAPPER THAT DEALS WITH PAGES IS A PAGER
 DEMAND PAGING
• Could bring entire process into
memory at load time
• Or bring a page into memory only
when it is needed
• Less I/O needed, no unnecessary
I/O
• Less memory needed
• Faster response
• More users
• Similar to paging system with
swapping (diagram on right)
 BASIC CONCEPTS
• With swapping, pager guesses which pages will be used before
swapping out again
• Instead, pager brings in only those pages into memory
• How to determine that set of pages?
• Need new mmu functionality to implement demand paging

• If pages needed are already memory resident

• No difference from non demand-paging

• If page needed and not memory resident

• Need to detect and load the page into memory from storage
• Without changing program behavior
• Without programmer needing to change code
 VALID-INVALID BIT
• With each page table entry a valid–invalid bit is associated
(v  in-memory – memory resident, i  not-in-memory)
• Initially valid–invalid bit is set to i on all entries
• Example of a page table snapshot:

• During MMU address translation, if valid–invalid bit in page table entry is i

 page fault
PAGE TABLE WHEN SOME PAGES ARE NOT
IN MAIN MEMORY
STEPS IN HANDLING PAGE FAULT

1. If there is a reference to a page, first reference to that page will trap to

operating system
• Page fault
2. Operating system looks at another table to decide:
• Invalid reference  abort
• Just not in memory
3. Find free frame
4. Swap page into frame via scheduled disk operation
5. Reset tables to indicate page now in memory
set validation bit = v
6. Restart the instruction that caused the page fault
STEPS IN HANDLING A PAGE FAULT (CONT.)
 ASPECTS OF DEMAND PAGING
• EXTREME CASE – START PROCESS WITH NO PAGES IN MEMORY
• OS SETS INSTRUCTION POINTER TO FIRST INSTRUCTION OF PROCESS,
NON-MEMORY-RESIDENT -> PAGE FAULT
• AND FOR EVERY OTHER PROCESS PAGES ON FIRST ACCESS
• PURE DEMAND PAGING

• ACTUALLY, A GIVEN INSTRUCTION COULD ACCESS MULTIPLE

PAGES -> MULTIPLE PAGE FAULTS
• CONSIDER FETCH AND DECODE OF INSTRUCTION WHICH ADDS 2
NUMBERS FROM MEMORY AND STORES RESULT BACK TO MEMORY
• PAIN DECREASED BECAUSE OF LOCALITY OF REFERENCE

• HARDWARE SUPPORT NEEDED FOR DEMAND PAGING

• PAGE TABLE WITH VALID / INVALID BIT
• SECONDARY MEMORY (SWAP DEVICE WITH SWAP SPACE)
• INSTRUCTION RESTART
 INSTRUCTION RESTART

• CONSIDER AN INSTRUCTION THAT COULD ACCESS

SEVERAL DIFFERENT LOCATIONS
• BLOCK MOVE

• AUTO INCREMENT/DECREMENT LOCATION

• RESTART THE WHOLE OPERATION?
• WHAT IF SOURCE AND DESTINATION OVERLAP?
 FREE-FRAME LIST

• WHEN A PAGE FAULT OCCURS, THE OPERATING SYSTEM MUST BRING

THE DESIRED PAGE FROM SECONDARY STORAGE INTO MAIN MEMORY.
• MOST OPERATING SYSTEMS MAINTAIN A FREE-FRAME LIST -- A POOL
OF FREE FRAMES FOR SATISFYING SUCH REQUESTS.

• OPERATING SYSTEM TYPICALLY ALLOCATE FREE FRAMES USING A

TECHNIQUE KNOWN AS ZERO-FILL-ON-DEMAND -- THE CONTENT OF
THE FRAMES ZEROED-OUT BEFORE BEING ALLOCATED.
• WHEN A SYSTEM STARTS UP, ALL AVAILABLE MEMORY IS PLACED ON
THE FREE-FRAME LIST.
 STAGES IN DEMAND PAGING – WORSE CASE

1. TRAP TO THE OPERATING SYSTEM

2. SAVE THE USER REGISTERS AND PROCESS STATE
3. DETERMINE THAT THE INTERRUPT WAS A PAGE FAULT
4. CHECK THAT THE PAGE REFERENCE WAS LEGAL AND
DETERMINE THE LOCATION OF THE PAGE ON THE DISK
5. ISSUE A READ FROM THE DISK TO A FREE FRAME:
a) WAIT IN A QUEUE FOR THIS DEVICE UNTIL THE READ
REQUEST IS SERVICED
b) WAIT FOR THE DEVICE SEEK AND/OR LATENCY TIME
c) BEGIN THE TRANSFER OF THE PAGE TO A FREE FRAME
 STAGES IN DEMAND PAGING (CONT.)

6. WHILE WAITING, ALLOCATE THE CPU TO SOME OTHER USER

7. RECEIVE AN INTERRUPT FROM THE DISK I/O SUBSYSTEM (I/O
COMPLETED)
8. SAVE THE REGISTERS AND PROCESS STATE FOR THE OTHER
USER
9. DETERMINE THAT THE INTERRUPT WAS FROM THE DISK
10. CORRECT THE PAGE TABLE AND OTHER TABLES TO SHOW PAGE
IS NOW IN MEMORY
11. WAIT FOR THE CPU TO BE ALLOCATED TO THIS PROCESS AGAIN
12. RESTORE THE USER REGISTERS, PROCESS STATE, AND NEW
PAGE TABLE, AND THEN
RESUME THE INTERRUPTED INSTRUCTION
 PERFORMANCE OF DEMAND
PAGING
• THREE MAJOR ACTIVITIES
• SERVICE THE INTERRUPT – CAREFUL CODING MEANS JUST SEVERAL HUNDRED
INSTRUCTIONS NEEDED
• READ THE PAGE – LOTS OF TIME
• RESTART THE PROCESS – AGAIN JUST A SMALL AMOUNT OF TIME

• PAGE FAULT RATE 0  P  1

• IF P = 0 NO PAGE FAULTS
• IF P = 1, EVERY REFERENCE IS A FAULT

• EFFECTIVE ACCESS TIME (EAT)

EAT = (1 – P) X MEMORY ACCESS

+ P (PAGE FAULT OVERHEAD
+ SWAP PAGE OUT
+ SWAP PAGE IN )
 DEMAND PAGING EXAMPLE
• MEMORY ACCESS TIME = 200 NANOSECONDS
• AVERAGE PAGE-FAULT SERVICE TIME = 8 MILLISECONDS
• EAT = (1 – P) X 200 + P (8 MILLISECONDS)
= (1 – P X 200 + P X 8,000,000
= 200 + P X 7,999,800
• IF ONE ACCESS OUT OF 1,000 CAUSES A PAGE FAULT, THEN
EAT = 8.2 MICROSECONDS.
THIS IS A SLOWDOWN BY A FACTOR OF 40!!
• IF WANT PERFORMANCE DEGRADATION < 10 PERCENT
• 220 > 200 + 7,999,800 X P
20 > 7,999,800 X P
• P < .0000025
• < ONE PAGE FAULT IN EVERY 400,000 MEMORY ACCESSES
 DEMAND PAGING OPTIMIZATIONS
• SWAP SPACE I/O FASTER THAN FILE SYSTEM I/O EVEN IF ON THE SAME DEVICE
• SWAP ALLOCATED IN LARGER CHUNKS, LESS MANAGEMENT NEEDED THAN FILE
SYSTEM

• COPY ENTIRE PROCESS IMAGE TO SWAP SPACE AT PROCESS LOAD TIME

• THEN PAGE IN AND OUT OF SWAP SPACE
• USED IN OLDER BSD UNIX

• DEMAND PAGE IN FROM PROGRAM BINARY ON DISK, BUT DISCARD RATHER THAN
PAGING OUT WHEN FREEING FRAME
• USED IN SOLARIS AND CURRENT BSD
• STILL NEED TO WRITE TO SWAP SPACE
• PAGES NOT ASSOCIATED WITH A FILE (LIKE STACK AND HEAP) –
ANONYMOUS MEMORY
• PAGES MODIFIED IN MEMORY BUT NOT YET WRITTEN BACK TO THE FILE
SYSTEM

• MOBILE SYSTEMS
• TYPICALLY DON’T SUPPORT SWAPPING
• INSTEAD, DEMAND PAGE FROM FILE SYSTEM AND RECLAIM READ-ONLY PAGES
(SUCH AS CODE)
 COPY-ON-WRITE
• COPY-ON-WRITE (COW) ALLOWS BOTH PARENT AND CHILD PROCESSES TO INITIALLY
SHARE THE SAME PAGES IN MEMORY
• IF EITHER PROCESS MODIFIES A SHARED PAGE, ONLY THEN IS THE PAGE COPIED

• COW ALLOWS MORE EFFICIENT PROCESS CREATION AS ONLY MODIFIED PAGES ARE
COPIED

• IN GENERAL, FREE PAGES ARE ALLOCATED FROM A POOL OF ZERO-FILL-ON-DEMAND

PAGES
• POOL SHOULD ALWAYS HAVE FREE FRAMES FOR FAST DEMAND PAGE EXECUTION
• DON’T WANT TO HAVE TO FREE A FRAME AS WELL AS OTHER PROCESSING
ON PAGE FAULT
• WHY ZERO-OUT A PAGE BEFORE ALLOCATING IT?

• VFORK() VARIATION ON FORK() SYSTEM CALL HAS PARENT SUSPEND AND CHILD
USING COPY-ON-WRITE ADDRESS SPACE OF PARENT
• DESIGNED TO HAVE CHILD CALL EXEC()
• VERY EFFICIENT
BEFORE PROCESS 1 MODIFIES PAGE C
AFTER PROCESS 1 MODIFIES PAGE C
 WHAT HAPPENS IF THERE IS NO FREE
FRAME?
• USED UP BY PROCESS PAGES
• ALSO IN DEMAND FROM THE KERNEL, I/O BUFFERS, ETC
• HOW MUCH TO ALLOCATE TO EACH?
• PAGE REPLACEMENT – FIND SOME PAGE IN MEMORY, BUT
NOT REALLY IN USE, PAGE IT OUT
• ALGORITHM – TERMINATE? SWAP OUT? REPLACE THE PAGE?
• PERFORMANCE – WANT AN ALGORITHM WHICH WILL RESULT
IN MINIMUM NUMBER OF PAGE FAULTS

• SAME PAGE MAY BE BROUGHT INTO MEMORY SEVERAL

TIMES
 PAGE REPLACEMENT
• PREVENT OVER-ALLOCATION OF MEMORY BY MODIFYING
PAGE-FAULT SERVICE ROUTINE TO INCLUDE PAGE
REPLACEMENT
• USE MODIFY (DIRTY) BIT TO REDUCE OVERHEAD OF PAGE
TRANSFERS – ONLY MODIFIED PAGES ARE WRITTEN TO
DISK
• PAGE REPLACEMENT COMPLETES SEPARATION BETWEEN
LOGICAL MEMORY AND PHYSICAL MEMORY – LARGE
VIRTUAL MEMORY CAN BE PROVIDED ON A SMALLER
PHYSICAL MEMORY
NEED FOR PAGE REPLACEMENT
 BASIC PAGE REPLACEMENT
1. FIND THE LOCATION OF THE DESIRED PAGE ON DISK
2. FIND A FREE FRAME:
- IF THERE IS A FREE FRAME, USE IT
- IF THERE IS NO FREE FRAME, USE A PAGE REPLACEMENT
ALGORITHM TO SELECT A VICTIM FRAME
- WRITE VICTIM FRAME TO DISK IF DIRTY
3. BRING THE DESIRED PAGE INTO THE (NEWLY) FREE FRAME; UPDATE
THE PAGE AND FRAME TABLES
4. CONTINUE THE PROCESS BY RESTARTING THE INSTRUCTION THAT
CAUSED THE TRAP

NOTE NOW POTENTIALLY 2 PAGE TRANSFERS FOR PAGE FAULT –

INCREASING EAT
PAGE REPLACEMENT
 PAGE AND FRAME REPLACEMENT
ALGORITHMS
• FRAME-ALLOCATION ALGORITHM DETERMINES
• HOW MANY FRAMES TO GIVE EACH PROCESS
• WHICH FRAMES TO REPLACE

• PAGE-REPLACEMENT ALGORITHM
• WANT LOWEST PAGE-FAULT RATE ON BOTH FIRST ACCESS AND RE-ACCESS

• EVALUATE ALGORITHM BY RUNNING IT ON A PARTICULAR STRING OF

MEMORY REFERENCES (REFERENCE STRING) AND COMPUTING THE
NUMBER OF PAGE FAULTS ON THAT STRING
• STRING IS JUST PAGE NUMBERS, NOT FULL ADDRESSES
• REPEATED ACCESS TO THE SAME PAGE DOES NOT CAUSE A PAGE FAULT
• RESULTS DEPEND ON NUMBER OF FRAMES AVAILABLE

• IN ALL OUR EXAMPLES, THE REFERENCE STRING OF REFERENCED

PAGE NUMBERS IS
7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
GRAPH OF PAGE FAULTS VERSUS THE NUMBER OF
FRAMES
FIRST-IN-FIRST-OUT (FIFO) ALGORITHM
• REFERENCE STRING: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
• 3 FRAMES (3 PAGES CAN BE IN MEMORY AT A TIME PER PROCESS)

15 page faults

• CAN VARY BY REFERENCE STRING: CONSIDER 1,2,3,4,1,2,5,1,2,3,4,5

• ADDING MORE FRAMES CAN CAUSE MORE PAGE FAULTS!
• BELADY’S ANOMALY

• HOW TO TRACK AGES OF PAGES?

• JUST USE A FIFO QUEUE
FIFO ILLUSTRATING BELADY’S ANOMALY
 OPTIMAL ALGORITHM
• REPLACE PAGE THAT WILL NOT BE USED FOR LONGEST PERIOD OF TIME
• 9 IS OPTIMAL FOR THE EXAMPLE

• HOW DO YOU KNOW THIS?

• CAN’T READ THE FUTURE

• USED FOR MEASURING HOW WELL YOUR ALGORITHM PERFORMS

 LEAST RECENTLY USED (LRU) ALGORITHM

• USE PAST KNOWLEDGE RATHER THAN FUTURE

• REPLACE PAGE THAT HAS NOT BEEN USED IN THE MOST AMOUNT OF TIME
• ASSOCIATE TIME OF LAST USE WITH EACH PAGE

• 12 FAULTS – BETTER THAN FIFO BUT WORSE THAN OPT

• GENERALLY GOOD ALGORITHM AND FREQUENTLY USED
• BUT HOW TO IMPLEMENT?
 LRU ALGORITHM (CONT.)
• COUNTER IMPLEMENTATION
• EVERY PAGE ENTRY HAS A COUNTER; EVERY TIME PAGE IS
REFERENCED THROUGH THIS ENTRY, COPY THE CLOCK INTO
THE COUNTER
• WHEN A PAGE NEEDS TO BE CHANGED, LOOK AT THE
COUNTERS TO FIND SMALLEST VALUE
• SEARCH THROUGH TABLE NEEDED

• STACK IMPLEMENTATION
• KEEP A STACK OF PAGE NUMBERS IN A DOUBLE LINK FORM:
• PAGE REFERENCED:
• MOVE IT TO THE TOP
• REQUIRES 6 POINTERS TO BE CHANGED
• BUT EACH UPDATE MORE EXPENSIVE
• NO SEARCH FOR REPLACEMENT
 LRU ALGORITHM (CONT.)
• LRU AND OPT ARE CASES OF STACK ALGORITHMS THAT
DON’T HAVE BELADY’S ANOMALY
• USE OF A STACK TO RECORD MOST RECENT PAGE
REFERENCES
LRU APPROXIMATION ALGORITHMS
• LRU NEEDS SPECIAL HARDWARE AND STILL SLOW
• REFERENCE BIT
• WITH EACH PAGE ASSOCIATE A BIT, INITIALLY = 0
• WHEN PAGE IS REFERENCED BIT SET TO 1
• REPLACE ANY WITH REFERENCE BIT = 0 (IF ONE EXISTS)
• WE DO NOT KNOW THE ORDER, HOWEVER
 LRU APPROXIMATION ALGORITHMS (CONT.)

• SECOND-CHANCE ALGORITHM
• GENERALLY FIFO, PLUS HARDWARE-PROVIDED REFERENCE
BIT
• CLOCK REPLACEMENT
• IF PAGE TO BE REPLACED HAS
• REFERENCE BIT = 0 -> REPLACE IT
• REFERENCE BIT = 1 THEN:
• SET REFERENCE BIT 0, LEAVE PAGE IN MEMORY
• REPLACE NEXT PAGE, SUBJECT TO SAME RULES
SECOND-CHANCE ALGORITHM
 ENHANCED SECOND-CHANCE ALGORITHM

• IMPROVE ALGORITHM BY USING REFERENCE BIT AND MODIFY BIT

(IF AVAILABLE) IN CONCERT
• TAKE ORDERED PAIR (REFERENCE, MODIFY):
• (0, 0) NEITHER RECENTLY USED NOT MODIFIED – BEST PAGE TO
REPLACE
• (0, 1) NOT RECENTLY USED BUT MODIFIED – NOT QUITE AS GOOD,
MUST WRITE OUT BEFORE REPLACEMENT
• (1, 0) RECENTLY USED BUT CLEAN – PROBABLY WILL BE USED AGAIN
SOON
• (1, 1) RECENTLY USED AND MODIFIED – PROBABLY WILL BE USED
AGAIN SOON AND NEED TO WRITE OUT BEFORE REPLACEMENT

• WHEN PAGE REPLACEMENT CALLED FOR, USE THE CLOCK

SCHEME BUT USE THE FOUR CLASSES REPLACE PAGE IN LOWEST
NON-EMPTY CLASS
• MIGHT NEED TO SEARCH CIRCULAR QUEUE SEVERAL TIMES
 COUNTING ALGORITHMS
• KEEP A COUNTER OF THE NUMBER OF REFERENCES
THAT HAVE BEEN MADE TO EACH PAGE
• NOT COMMON

• LEASE FREQUENTLY USED (LFU) ALGORITHM:

• REPLACES PAGE WITH SMALLEST COUNT

• MOST FREQUENTLY USED (MFU) ALGORITHM:

• BASED ON THE ARGUMENT THAT THE PAGE WITH THE
SMALLEST COUNT WAS PROBABLY JUST BROUGHT IN AND
HAS YET TO BE USED
 PAGE-BUFFERING ALGORITHMS
• KEEP A POOL OF FREE FRAMES, ALWAYS
• THEN FRAME AVAILABLE WHEN NEEDED, NOT FOUND AT FAULT TIME
• READ PAGE INTO FREE FRAME AND SELECT VICTIM TO EVICT AND
ADD TO FREE POOL
• WHEN CONVENIENT, EVICT VICTIM

• POSSIBLY, KEEP LIST OF MODIFIED PAGES

• WHEN BACKING STORE OTHERWISE IDLE, WRITE PAGES THERE AND
SET TO NON-DIRTY

• POSSIBLY, KEEP FREE FRAME CONTENTS INTACT AND NOTE

WHAT IS IN THEM
• IF REFERENCED AGAIN BEFORE REUSED, NO NEED TO LOAD
CONTENTS AGAIN FROM DISK
• GENERALLY USEFUL TO REDUCE PENALTY IF WRONG VICTIM FRAME
SELECTED
APPLICATIONS AND PAGE REPLACEMENT

• ALL OF THESE ALGORITHMS HAVE OS GUESSING ABOUT

FUTURE PAGE ACCESS
• SOME APPLICATIONS HAVE BETTER KNOWLEDGE – I.E.
DATABASES
• MEMORY INTENSIVE APPLICATIONS CAN CAUSE DOUBLE
BUFFERING
• OS KEEPS COPY OF PAGE IN MEMORY AS I/O BUFFER
• APPLICATION KEEPS PAGE IN MEMORY FOR ITS OWN WORK

• OPERATING SYSTEM CAN GIVEN DIRECT ACCESS TO THE

DISK, GETTING OUT OF THE WAY OF THE APPLICATIONS
• RAW DISK MODE

• BYPASSES BUFFERING, LOCKING, ETC.

 ALLOCATION OF FRAMES
• EACH PROCESS NEEDS MINIMUM NUMBER OF FRAMES
• EXAMPLE: IBM 370 – 6 PAGES TO HANDLE SS MOVE
INSTRUCTION:
• INSTRUCTION IS 6 BYTES, MIGHT SPAN 2 PAGES
• 2 PAGES TO HANDLE FROM
• 2 PAGES TO HANDLE TO

• MAXIMUM OF COURSE IS TOTAL FRAMES IN THE SYSTEM

• TWO MAJOR ALLOCATION SCHEMES
• FIXED ALLOCATION
• PRIORITY ALLOCATION

• MANY VARIATIONS
 FIXED ALLOCATION
• EQUAL ALLOCATION – FOR EXAMPLE, IF THERE ARE 100
FRAMES (AFTER ALLOCATING FRAMES FOR THE OS) AND 5
PROCESSES, GIVE EACH PROCESS 20 FRAMES
• KEEP SOME AS FREE FRAME BUFFER POOL

• PROPORTIONAL ALLOCATION – ALLOCATE ACCORDING TO

THE SIZE
s OF
sizePROCESS
of process p
i i
• DYNAMIC
S   si AS DEGREE OF MULTIPROGRAMMING, PROCESS
SIZES
m CHANGE
total number of frames
si
ai  allocation for pi  m
S
 GLOBAL VS. LOCAL ALLOCATION
• GLOBAL REPLACEMENT – PROCESS SELECTS A
REPLACEMENT FRAME FROM THE SET OF ALL FRAMES;
ONE PROCESS CAN TAKE A FRAME FROM ANOTHER
• BUT THEN PROCESS EXECUTION TIME CAN VARY GREATLY
• BUT GREATER THROUGHPUT SO MORE COMMON

• LOCAL REPLACEMENT – EACH PROCESS SELECTS FROM

ONLY ITS OWN SET OF ALLOCATED FRAMES
• MORE CONSISTENT PER-PROCESS PERFORMANCE
• BUT POSSIBLY UNDERUTILIZED MEMORY
 RECLAIMING PAGES
• A STRATEGY TO IMPLEMENT GLOBAL PAGE-REPLACEMENT
POLICY
• ALL MEMORY REQUESTS ARE SATISFIED FROM THE FREE-
FRAME LIST, RATHER THAN WAITING FOR THE LIST TO
DROP TO ZERO BEFORE WE BEGIN SELECTING PAGES FOR
REPLACEMENT,
• PAGE REPLACEMENT IS TRIGGERED WHEN THE LIST FALLS
BELOW A CERTAIN THRESHOLD.
• THIS STRATEGY ATTEMPTS TO ENSURE THERE IS ALWAYS
SUFFICIENT FREE MEMORY TO SATISFY NEW REQUESTS.
RECLAIMING PAGES EXAMPLE
 NON-UNIFORM MEMORY ACCESS
• SO FAR, WE ASSUMED THAT ALL MEMORY ACCESSED EQUALLY
• MANY SYSTEMS ARE NUMA – SPEED OF ACCESS TO MEMORY VARIES
• CONSIDER SYSTEM BOARDS CONTAINING CPUS AND MEMORY,
INTERCONNECTED OVER A SYSTEM BUS

• NUMA MULTIPROCESSING ARCHITECTURE

 NON-UNIFORM MEMORY ACCESS (CONT.)

• OPTIMAL PERFORMANCE COMES FROM ALLOCATING

MEMORY “CLOSE TO” THE CPU ON WHICH THE THREAD IS
SCHEDULED
• AND MODIFYING THE SCHEDULER TO SCHEDULE THE
THREAD ON THE SAME SYSTEM BOARD WHEN POSSIBLE
• SOLVED BY SOLARIS BY CREATING LGROUPS
• STRUCTURE TO TRACK CPU / MEMORY LOW LATENCY GROUPS
• USED MY SCHEDULE AND PAGER
• WHEN POSSIBLE SCHEDULE ALL THREADS OF A PROCESS AND
ALLOCATE ALL MEMORY FOR THAT PROCESS WITHIN THE
LGROUP
 THRASHING
• IF A PROCESS DOES NOT HAVE “ENOUGH” PAGES, THE
PAGE-FAULT RATE IS VERY HIGH
• PAGE FAULT TO GET PAGE
• REPLACE EXISTING FRAME
• BUT QUICKLY NEED REPLACED FRAME BACK
• THIS LEADS TO:
• LOW CPU UTILIZATION
• OPERATING SYSTEM THINKING THAT IT NEEDS TO INCREASE THE
DEGREE OF MULTIPROGRAMMING
• ANOTHER PROCESS ADDED TO THE SYSTEM
 THRASHING (CONT.)
• THRASHING. A PROCESS IS BUSY SWAPPING PAGES IN
AND OUT
 DEMAND PAGING AND THRASHING

• WHY DOES DEMAND PAGING WORK?

LOCALITY MODEL
• PROCESS MIGRATES FROM ONE LOCALITY TO ANOTHER
• LOCALITIES MAY OVERLAP

• WHY DOES THRASHING OCCUR?

 SIZE OF LOCALITY > TOTAL MEMORY SIZE

• LIMIT EFFECTS BY USING LOCAL OR PRIORITY PAGE

REPLACEMENT
LOCALITY IN A MEMORY-REFERENCE
PATTERN
 WORKING-SET MODEL
•   WORKING-SET WINDOW  A FIXED NUMBER OF PAGE
REFERENCES
EXAMPLE: 10,000 INSTRUCTIONS
• WSSI (WORKING SET OF PROCESS PI) = TOTAL NUMBER OF
PAGES REFERENCED IN THE MOST RECENT  (VARIES IN
TIME)
• IF  TOO SMALL WILL NOT ENCOMPASS ENTIRE LOCALITY
• IF  TOO LARGE WILL ENCOMPASS SEVERAL LOCALITIES
• IF  =   WILL ENCOMPASS ENTIRE PROGRAM

• D =  WSSI  TOTAL DEMAND FRAMES

• APPROXIMATION OF LOCALITY
 WORKING-SET MODEL (CONT.)
• IF D > M  THRASHING
• POLICY IF D > M, THEN SUSPEND OR SWAP OUT ONE
OF THE PROCESSES
 KEEPING TRACK OF THE WORKING SET

• APPROXIMATE WITH INTERVAL TIMER + A REFERENCE BIT

• EXAMPLE:  = 10,000
• TIMER INTERRUPTS AFTER EVERY 5000 TIME UNITS
• KEEP IN MEMORY 2 BITS FOR EACH PAGE
• WHENEVER A TIMER INTERRUPTS COPY AND SETS THE
VALUES OF ALL REFERENCE BITS TO 0
• IF ONE OF THE BITS IN MEMORY = 1  PAGE IN WORKING SET

• WHY IS THIS NOT COMPLETELY ACCURATE?

• IMPROVEMENT = 10 BITS AND INTERRUPT EVERY 1000
TIME UNITS
 PAGE-FAULT FREQUENCY
• MORE DIRECT APPROACH THAN WSS
• ESTABLISH “ACCEPTABLE” PAGE-FAULT FREQUENCY (PFF) RATE AND
USE LOCAL REPLACEMENT POLICY
• IF ACTUAL RATE TOO LOW, PROCESS LOSES FRAME
• IF ACTUAL RATE TOO HIGH, PROCESS GAINS FRAME
WORKING SETS AND PAGE FAULT RATES
 Direct relationship between working set of a process and its page-fault
rate
 Working set changes over time
 Peaks and valleys over time
 ALLOCATING KERNEL MEMORY
• TREATED DIFFERENTLY FROM USER MEMORY
• OFTEN ALLOCATED FROM A FREE-MEMORY POOL
• KERNEL REQUESTS MEMORY FOR STRUCTURES OF VARYING
SIZES
• SOME KERNEL MEMORY NEEDS TO BE CONTIGUOUS
• I.E., FOR DEVICE I/O
 BUDDY SYSTEM
• ALLOCATES MEMORY FROM FIXED-SIZE SEGMENT CONSISTING OF
PHYSICALLY-CONTIGUOUS PAGES
• MEMORY ALLOCATED USING POWER-OF-2 ALLOCATOR
• SATISFIES REQUESTS IN UNITS SIZED AS POWER OF 2
• REQUEST ROUNDED UP TO NEXT HIGHEST POWER OF 2
• WHEN SMALLER ALLOCATION NEEDED THAN IS AVAILABLE, CURRENT
CHUNK SPLIT INTO TWO BUDDIES OF NEXT-LOWER POWER OF 2
• CONTINUE UNTIL APPROPRIATE SIZED CHUNK AVAILABLE

• FOR EXAMPLE, ASSUME 256KB CHUNK AVAILABLE, KERNEL REQUESTS

21KB
• SPLIT INTO AL AND AR OF 128KB EACH
• ONE FURTHER DIVIDED INTO BL AND BR OF 64KB
• ONE FURTHER INTO CL AND CR OF 32KB EACH – ONE USED TO SATISFY REQUEST

• ADVANTAGE – QUICKLY COALESCE UNUSED CHUNKS INTO LARGER

CHUNK
• DISADVANTAGE - FRAGMENTATION
BUDDY SYSTEM ALLOCATOR
 SLAB ALLOCATOR
• ALTERNATE STRATEGY
• SLAB IS ONE OR MORE PHYSICALLY CONTIGUOUS PAGES
• CACHE CONSISTS OF ONE OR MORE SLABS
• SINGLE CACHE FOR EACH UNIQUE KERNEL DATA STRUCTURE
• EACH CACHE FILLED WITH OBJECTS – INSTANTIATIONS OF THE DATA
STRUCTURE

• WHEN CACHE CREATED, FILLED WITH OBJECTS MARKED AS FREE

• WHEN STRUCTURES STORED, OBJECTS MARKED AS USED
• IF SLAB IS FULL OF USED OBJECTS, NEXT OBJECT ALLOCATED
FROM EMPTY SLAB
• IF NO EMPTY SLABS, NEW SLAB ALLOCATED

• BENEFITS INCLUDE NO FRAGMENTATION, FAST MEMORY REQUEST

SATISFACTION
SLAB ALLOCATION
 SLAB ALLOCATOR IN LINUX
• FOR EXAMPLE PROCESS DESCRIPTOR IS OF TYPE STRUCT
TASK_STRUCT
• APPROX 1.7KB OF MEMORY
• NEW TASK -> ALLOCATE NEW STRUCT FROM CACHE
• WILL USE EXISTING FREE STRUCT TASK_STRUCT

• SLAB CAN BE IN THREE POSSIBLE STATES

1. FULL – ALL USED
2. EMPTY – ALL FREE
3. PARTIAL – MIX OF FREE AND USED

• UPON REQUEST, SLAB ALLOCATOR

1. USES FREE STRUCT IN PARTIAL SLAB
2. IF NONE, TAKES ONE FROM EMPTY SLAB
3. IF NO EMPTY SLAB, CREATE NEW EMPTY
SLAB ALLOCATOR IN LINUX (CONT.)
• SLAB STARTED IN SOLARIS, NOW WIDE-SPREAD FOR BOTH
KERNEL MODE AND USER MEMORY IN VARIOUS OSES
• LINUX 2.2 HAD SLAB, NOW HAS BOTH SLOB AND SLUB
ALLOCATORS
• SLOB FOR SYSTEMS WITH LIMITED MEMORY
• SIMPLE LIST OF BLOCKS – MAINTAINS 3 LIST OBJECTS FOR
SMALL, MEDIUM, LARGE OBJECTS
• SLUB IS PERFORMANCE-OPTIMIZED SLAB REMOVES PER-CPU
QUEUES, METADATA STORED IN PAGE STRUCTURE
 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
• PREPAGING
• PAGE SIZE
• TLB REACH
• INVERTED PAGE TABLE
• PROGRAM STRUCTURE
• I/O INTERLOCK AND PAGE LOCKING
 PREPAGING
• TO REDUCE THE LARGE NUMBER OF PAGE FAULTS THAT
OCCURS AT PROCESS STARTUP
• PREPAGE ALL OR SOME OF THE PAGES A PROCESS WILL
NEED, BEFORE THEY ARE REFERENCED
• BUT IF PREPAGED PAGES ARE UNUSED, I/O AND MEMORY
WAS WASTED
• ASSUME S PAGES ARE PREPAGED AND Α OF THE PAGES IS
USED
• IS COST OF S * Α SAVE PAGES FAULTS > OR < THAN THE COST
OF PREPAGING
S * (1- Α) UNNECESSARY PAGES?
• Α NEAR ZERO  PREPAGING LOSES
 PAGE SIZE
• SOMETIMES OS DESIGNERS HAVE A CHOICE
• ESPECIALLY IF RUNNING ON CUSTOM-BUILT CPU

• PAGE SIZE SELECTION MUST TAKE INTO CONSIDERATION:

• FRAGMENTATION
• PAGE TABLE SIZE
• RESOLUTION
• I/O OVERHEAD
• NUMBER OF PAGE FAULTS
• LOCALITY
• TLB SIZE AND EFFECTIVENESS

• ALWAYS POWER OF 2, USUALLY IN THE RANGE 212 (4,096 BYTES)

TO 222 (4,194,304 BYTES)
• ON AVERAGE, GROWING OVER TIME
 TLB REACH
• TLB REACH - THE AMOUNT OF MEMORY ACCESSIBLE FROM THE TLB
• TLB REACH = (TLB SIZE) X (PAGE SIZE)
• IDEALLY, THE WORKING SET OF EACH PROCESS IS STORED IN THE
TLB
• OTHERWISE THERE IS A HIGH DEGREE OF PAGE FAULTS

• INCREASE THE PAGE SIZE

• THIS MAY LEAD TO AN INCREASE IN FRAGMENTATION AS NOT ALL
APPLICATIONS REQUIRE A LARGE PAGE SIZE

• PROVIDE MULTIPLE PAGE SIZES

• THIS ALLOWS APPLICATIONS THAT REQUIRE LARGER PAGE SIZES THE
OPPORTUNITY TO USE THEM WITHOUT AN INCREASE IN
FRAGMENTATION
 PROGRAM STRUCTURE
• PROGRAM STRUCTURE
• INT[128,128] DATA;
• EACH ROW IS STORED IN ONE PAGE
• PROGRAM 1
FOR (J = 0; J <128; J++)
FOR (I = 0; I < 128; I++)
DATA[I,J] = 0;

128 X 128 = 16,384 PAGE FAULTS

• PROGRAM 2
FOR (I = 0; I < 128; I++)
FOR (J = 0; J < 128; J++)
DATA[I,J] = 0;

128 PAGE FAULTS

 I/O INTERLOCK
• I/O INTERLOCK – PAGES
MUST SOMETIMES BE
LOCKED INTO MEMORY
• CONSIDER I/O - PAGES THAT
ARE USED FOR COPYING A
FILE FROM A DEVICE MUST
BE LOCKED FROM BEING
SELECTED FOR EVICTION BY
A PAGE REPLACEMENT
ALGORITHM
• PINNING OF PAGES TO LOCK
INTO MEMORY
 OPERATING SYSTEM EXAMPLES

• WINDOWS

• SOLARIS
 WINDOWS
• USES DEMAND PAGING WITH CLUSTERING. CLUSTERING
BRINGS IN PAGES SURROUNDING THE FAULTING PAGE
• PROCESSES ARE ASSIGNED WORKING SET MINIMUM AND
WORKING SET MAXIMUM
• WORKING SET MINIMUM IS THE MINIMUM NUMBER OF PAGES
THE PROCESS IS GUARANTEED TO HAVE IN MEMORY
• A PROCESS MAY BE ASSIGNED AS MANY PAGES UP TO ITS
WORKING SET MAXIMUM
• WHEN THE AMOUNT OF FREE MEMORY IN THE SYSTEM FALLS
BELOW A THRESHOLD, AUTOMATIC WORKING SET TRIMMING
IS PERFORMED TO RESTORE THE AMOUNT OF FREE MEMORY
• WORKING SET TRIMMING REMOVES PAGES FROM PROCESSES
THAT HAVE PAGES IN EXCESS OF THEIR WORKING SET
MINIMUM
 SOLARIS
• MAINTAINS A LIST OF FREE PAGES TO ASSIGN FAULTING
PROCESSES
• LOTSFREE – THRESHOLD PARAMETER (AMOUNT OF FREE
MEMORY) TO BEGIN PAGING
• DESFREE – THRESHOLD PARAMETER TO INCREASING PAGING
• MINFREE – THRESHOLD PARAMETER TO BEING SWAPPING
• PAGING IS PERFORMED BY PAGEOUT PROCESS
• PAGEOUT SCANS PAGES USING MODIFIED CLOCK ALGORITHM
• SCANRATE IS THE RATE AT WHICH PAGES ARE SCANNED. THIS
RANGES FROM SLOWSCAN TO FASTSCAN
• PAGEOUT IS CALLED MORE FREQUENTLY DEPENDING UPON THE
AMOUNT OF FREE MEMORY AVAILABLE
• PRIORITY PAGING GIVES PRIORITY TO PROCESS CODE PAGES
SOLARIS 2 PAGE SCANNER
 END OF CHAPTER 10

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
PERFORMANCE OF DEMAND PAGING
• STAGES IN DEMAND PAGING (WORSE CASE)
1. TRAP TO THE OPERATING SYSTEM

2. SAVE THE USER REGISTERS AND PROCESS STATE

3. DETERMINE THAT THE INTERRUPT WAS A PAGE FAULT

4. CHECK THAT THE PAGE REFERENCE WAS LEGAL AND DETERMINE THE LOCATION OF THE PAGE ON THE DISK

5. ISSUE A READ FROM THE DISK TO A FREE FRAME:

1. WAIT IN A QUEUE FOR THIS DEVICE UNTIL THE READ REQUEST IS SERVICED
2. WAIT FOR THE DEVICE SEEK AND/OR LATENCY TIME
3. BEGIN THE TRANSFER OF THE PAGE TO A FREE FRAME

6. WHILE WAITING, ALLOCATE THE CPU TO SOME OTHER USER

7. RECEIVE AN INTERRUPT FROM THE DISK I/O SUBSYSTEM (I/O COMPLETED)

8. SAVE THE REGISTERS AND PROCESS STATE FOR THE OTHER USER

9. DETERMINE THAT THE INTERRUPT WAS FROM THE DISK

10. CORRECT THE PAGE TABLE AND OTHER TABLES TO SHOW PAGE IS NOW IN MEMORY

11. WAIT FOR THE CPU TO BE ALLOCATED TO THIS PROCESS AGAIN

12. RESTORE THE USER REGISTERS, PROCESS STATE, AND NEW PAGE TABLE, AND THEN RESUME THE
INTERRUPTED INSTRUCTION
NEED FOR PAGE REPLACEMENT
 PRIORITY ALLOCATION
• USE A PROPORTIONAL ALLOCATION SCHEME USING
PRIORITIES RATHER THAN SIZE

• IF PROCESS PI GENERATES A PAGE FAULT,

• SELECT FOR REPLACEMENT ONE OF ITS FRAMES
• SELECT FOR REPLACEMENT A FRAME FROM A PROCESS WITH
LOWER PRIORITY NUMBER
 MEMORY COMPRESSION
• MEMORY COMPRESSION -- RATHER THAN PAGING OUT MODIFIED
FRAMES TO SWAP SPACE, WE COMPRESS SEVERAL FRAMES INTO A SINGLE
FRAME, ENABLING THE SYSTEM TO REDUCE MEMORY USAGE WITHOUT
RESORTING TO SWAPPING PAGES.

• CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING FREE-FRAME-LIST CONSISTING OF 6 FRAMES

• ASSUME THAT THIS NUMBER OF FREE FRAMES FALLS BELOW A CERTAIN

THRESHOLD THAT TRIGGERS PAGE REPLACEMENT. THE REPLACEMENT
ALGORITHM (SAY, AN LRU APPROXIMATION ALGORITHM) SELECTS FOUR
FRAMES -- 15, 3, 35, AND 26 TO PLACE ON THE FREE-FRAME LIST. IT FIRST
PLACES THESE FRAMES ON A MODIFIED-FRAME LIST. TYPICALLY, THE
MODIFIED-FRAME LIST WOULD NEXT BE WRITTEN TO SWAP SPACE,
 MEMORY COMPRESSION (CONT.)
• AN ALTERNATIVE TO PAGING IS MEMORY COMPRESSION.
• RATHER THAN PAGING OUT MODIFIED FRAMES TO SWAP
SPACE, WE COMPRESS SEVERAL FRAMES INTO A SINGLE
FRAME, ENABLING THE SYSTEM TO REDUCE MEMORY
USAGE WITHOUT RESORTING TO SWAPPING PAGES.