Introduction to

Java Programming
Sun Club, IITK

Day-2
Acknowledgement

• Thanks to Dr. Mainak Chaudhuri, Instructor,

ESC101N for helping us with the content of the
presentation.
Sun Club ?

• This presentation will be shared at

http://groups.google.com/group/jug_sunclub

Club’s website
http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/users/sun

Club’s wiki
http://web.cse.iitk.ac.in/~sun/dokuwiki
 Revision !

Operators and Expressions:

Wrap up

4
Operator precedence

• Higher to lower precedence

 ++, -- (both post and pre) unary
 !, +, - (logical NOT, unary +, unary -) unary
 *, /, % (multiply, divide, mod) binary
 +, - (add, subtract) binary
 <, <=, >, >= (LT, LE, GT, GE) binary
 ==, != (equality and non-equality) binary
 && (logical AND) binary
 || (logical OR) binary
= (assignment) binary

5
Operator precedence

• What is the answer? (assume x=1)

• x*x+x%2
• 2*x/2%4 (need to know associativity)
• Almost all operators are left associative
 This indicates in which direction the operators of
the same precedence will evaluate
 Assignment has right associativity
 x=y=2; // assigns y=2 first and then x=y
 The above expression would lead to wrong
answer if assignment was left associative

6
Default initial values

• Every declared variable gets a pre-defined

default initial value in Java
 Not true for many other languages
 All primitive types get a zero value (boolean gets
false)
 You should not rely on this in your programs
even if the compiler allows you to do so
• Never use uninitialized variables in a program

7
Questions ? Doubts ?

• Let’s move on to a very important topic

“Conditionals”
if statement
if (condition) {
statements
}
Nested if
if (condition1) {
statements1
if (condition2) {
statements2
}
statements3
}

9
Nested if
Sometimes possible to simplify nested if
if (condition1) {
if (condition2) {
statements
}
}
Same as
if ((condition1) && (condition2)) {
statements
}

10
Example
class exampleIf {
public static void main(String arg[]) {
int x=10, y, z;
if ((x%2)==0) {
System.out.println(x + “ is even.”);
if ((x%3)==0) {
System.out.println(x + “ is a multiple of 6.”);
y = x/6;
}
z = x%6;
}
}
}

11
if-else
if (condition) {
statements1
}
else {
statements2
}
if within else
if (condition1) { statements1 }
else {
if (condition2) { statements2 }
statements3
}

12
if-else if-else if-…-else
if (condition1) {
statements1
}
else if (condition2) {
statements2
}
else if (condition3) {
statements3
}
…
else {
statementsn
}

13
Example
class greetings {
public static void main(String arg[]) {
int hour = 3;
if ((hour >= 0) && (hour < 12)) {
System.out.println(“Good Morning!”);
}
else if ((hour >= 12) && (hour < 18)) {
System.out.println(“Good Afternoon!”);
}
else if ((hour >=18) && (hour < 24)) {
System.out.println(“Good Evening!”);
}
else {
System.out.println(“Bad time!”);
}
}
}

14
Conditional assignment

if ((x%2)==0) {
y = x/2;
}
else {
y = (x+1)/2;
}
Same as
y = ((x%2)==0) ? x/2 : (x+1)/2;

15
Integer part and absolute value
class integerPart {
public static void main(String arg[]) {
double x = -3.7;
int ipart;
double aval;
ipart = ((x >= 0) || ((int)x==x)) ? (int)x : (int)(x-1);
aval = (x >= 0) ? x : -x;
System.out.println(“Integer part of ” + x + “ is ” + ipart +
“. Absolute value is ” + aval + “.”);
}
}

16
Integer part and absolute value
class integerPartAlternate {
public static void main(String arg[]) {
double x = -3.7;
int ipart;
double aval;
ipart = ((x < 0) && ((int)x!=x)) ? (int)(x-1) : (int)x;
aval = (x < 0) ? -x : x;
System.out.println(“Integer part of ” + x + “ is ” + ipart +
“. Absolute value is ” + aval + “.”);
}
}

17
Sorting three numbers
class sortThree {
public static void main(String arg[]) {
int x = 2, y = 5, z = 1;
int max, mid, min;
if ((x > y) && (x > z)) {
max = x;
if (y > z) {
mid = y;
min = z;
}
else {
mid = z;
min = y;
}
}
// next slide

18
Sorting three numbers
else {
if (y > z) {
max = y;
if (x > z) {
mid = x;
min = z;
}
else {
mid = z;
min = x;
}
}
else { // the remaining two permutations}
} // end else
} // end main
} // end class

19
Questions ?

• Let’s move to the next topic “Iteration”

Loops

• Needed in problems that require solving the

same subproblem over and over
 Computing the sum of the first 100 natural
numbers and putting the result in y
 Algorithm:
 y = 1;
 y = y + 2;
 y = y + 3;
…
 y = y + 100;
 Cannot write 99 such additions: use a loop

21
while

while (condition) {
statements
}
• Can put anything in “statements”
 The entire construct is called a while loop
 statements are executed until condition is true
 Even before executing it the first time condition is
evaluated
• A while loop may not execute even once

22
Example
class justAnExample {
public static void main(String arg[]) {
int x = 5;
int y = 0;
while (x < 10) {
y--;
x++;
}
System.out.println(y);
}
}

23
Example
class justAnExample {
public static void main(String arg[]) {
int x = 15;
int y = 0;
while (x < 10) {
y--;
x++;
}
System.out.println(y);
}
}

24
Sum of natural numbers
class naturalSum {
public static void main(String arg[]) {
int n = 2;
int y = 1;
while (n <= 100) {
y += n;
n++;
}
System.out.println(“Sum of the first ” + (n-1) + “ natural
numbers is ” + y);
}
}

25
Sum of natural numbers
class naturalSumAnotherWay {
public static void main(String arg[]) {
int n = 99;
int m = n+1;
int y = 100;
while (n > 0) {
y += n;
n--;
}
System.out.println(“Sum of the first ” + m + “ natural numbers is ” +
y)
}
}

26
Integer index
class integerIndex {
public static void main(String arg[]) {
int n = 3;
double x = 3.14, y = 1.0;
int m = n;
if (n < 0) {
x = 1/x;
m = -n;
}
while (m > 0) {
y *= x;
m--;
}
System.out.println(x + “ to the power ” + n + “ is ” + y);
}
}

27
Positive Decimal to Binary
class positiveDecimalToBinary {
public static void main(String arg[]) {
int n = 34, y=0, polyTerm = 1;
if (n < 0) {
System.out.println(“Sorry, cannot handle negative integers today!”);
}
else {
while (n > 0) {
y += (polyTerm*(n%2));
n /= 2;
polyTerm *= 10;
}
System.out.println(“Required binary: ” + y);
}
}
}

28
do-while

do {
statements
} while (condition);
“statements” execute at least once irrespective of
condition

29
for loops

for (expression1; condition; expression2) {

statements
}
Same as
expression1
while (condition) {
statements
expression2
}

30
Sum of natural numbers
class naturalSum {
public static void main(String arg[]) {
int n;
int y = 1;
for (n=2; n <=100; n++) {
y += n;
}
System.out.println(“Sum of the first ” + (n-1) + “ natural
numbers is ” + y);
}
}

31
Comma operator in for loop
for (expression1a, expression2a, …; condition; expression1b,
expression2b,…) {
statements
}
Same as
expression1a
expression2a …
while (condition) {
statements
expression1b
expression2b …
}

32
Sum of natural numbers

class naturalSum {
public static void main(String arg[]) {
int n;
int y;
for (n=2, y=1; n <=100; y += n, n++) { }
System.out.println(“Sum of the first ” + (n-1)
+ “ natural numbers is ” + y);
}
}

33
Empty for loop body

for (expression1; condition; expression2) {

}
• Same as
for (expression1; condition; expression2);

34
Infinite loops

• Loops that never terminate

while (true) {
statements
}

do {
statements
} while (true);

35
Infinite loops
for (expression1; ;expression2) {
statements
}

for (i=0; i > -10; i++) {

statements
}

for (i=0; i<=100; i--) {

statements
}

36
Perfect squares
class identifySquareButLessClever {
public static void main (String arg[]) {
int n = 48;
int i;
if (n < 0) {
System.out.println (n + “ is not a perfect square.”);
}
else if ((n==0) || (n==1)) {
System.out.println (n + “ is a perfect square.”);
}
else {
for (i=2; i<=n/2; i++) {
if ((i*i) == n) {
System.out.println(n + “ is square of ” + i);
}
}
}
}
}

37
break

• In the last example you may want to come out of the

for loop as soon as you discover that n is a square
 The computation done after this is useless
 Use break
 Breaks out of the loop (while, do-while, or for)
currently you are in
for (i=2; i<=n/2; i++) {
if ((i*i)==n) {
System.out.println(n + “ is square of ” + i);
break;
}
}

38
break

• Another way to achieve the same effect without

using break
for (i=2; (i<=n/2) && ((i*i) <= n); i++) {
if ((i*i)==n) {
System.out.println(n + “ is square of ” + i);
}
}

39
Questions ?

• Let’s proceed with more examples !

Primality testing
class primalityTestSlow {
public static void main (String arg[]) {
int n = 42, d;
if (n <= 1) {
System.out.println(n + “ is not a prime.”);
}
else {
for (d=2; d<=n/2; d++) {
if ((n%d)==0) {
System.out.println(n + “ is not a prime.”);
break;
}
}
if (d > n/2) {
System.out.println(n + “ is a prime.”);
}
}}}

41
Primality testing
class primalityTestLittleBetter {
public static void main (String arg[]) {
int n = 42, d;
if (n <= 1) {
System.out.println(n + “ is not a prime.”);
}
else {
for (d=2; d*d<=n; d++) {
if ((n%d)==0) {
System.out.println(n + “ is not a prime.”);
break;
}
}
if (d*d > n) {
System.out.println(n + “ is a prime.”);
}
}}}

42
continue
Allows you to skip parts of a for or while or do-while loop
statements
Example (want to print two-digit numbers with both digits odd)
for (i=10; i<100; i++) {
if ((i%2)==0) {
continue;
}
if (((i/10)%2)==1) {
System.out.println(i + “ has odd digits.”);
}
}

43
Perfect numbers
class perfectNumber {
public static void main (String arg[]) {
int n = 24;
int d, sigma_n = 1+n;
for (d=2; d<=n/2; d++) {
if ((n%d) != 0) {
continue;
}
sigma_n += d;
}
if (sigma_n == 2*n) {
System.out.println (n + “ is perfect.”);
}
}
}

44
Questions ?

• More on conditionals and loops

switch-case
An alternative of if-else if-…-else
switch (expression) {
case constant1: // integer or character
statements1
case constant2:
statements2
…
case constantN:
statementsN
default:
statementsD
}

46
switch-case
Same as
if (expression==constant1) {
statements1
statements2
…
statementsN
statementsD
}
else if (expression==constant2) {
statements2
statements3
…
statementsN
statementsD
}
// continued on next slide

47
switch-case
else if (expression==constant3) {
statements3
statements4
…
statementsN
statementsD
}
…
else if (expression==constantN) {
statementsN
statementsD
}
else {
statementsD
}

48
switch-case with break
switch (expression) {
case constant1:
statements1
break;
case constant2:
statements2
break;
…
case constantN:
statementsN
break;
default:
statementsD
break;
}

49
switch-case with break
Same as
if (expression==constant1) {
statements1
}
else if (expression==constant2) {
statements2
}
…
else if (expression==constantN) {
statementsN
}
else {
statementsD
}

50
switch-case: more flavors
switch (expression) {
case constant1:
case constant2:
statements1
break;
case constant3:
statements3
break;
…
case constantN:
statementsN
break;
default:
statementsD
break;
}

51
switch-case: more flavors
Same as
if ((expression==constant1) || (expression==constant2)) {
statements1
}
else if (expression==constant3) {
statements3
}
…
else if (expression==constantN) {
statementsN
}
else {
statementsD
}

52
Classification of numbers
class classifyNumbers {
public static void main (String arg[]) {
int n = 8;
switch (n) {
case 0 :
System.out.println(“Zero!”);
break;
case 1 :
System.out.println(“Smallest positive!”);
break;
case 2 :
System.out.println(“Smallest prime!”);
break;
// continued in next slide

53
Classification of numbers
case 3 :
System.out.println(“Smallest odd prime!”);
break;
case 4 :
System.out.println(“Smallest prime squared!”);
break;
case 5 :
System.out.println(“Number of fingers!”);
break;
case 6 :
System.out.println(“Smallest perfect!”);
break;
// continued in next slide

54
Classification of numbers
case 7 :
System.out.println(“North seven stars!”);
break;
case 8 :
System.out.println(“Smallest prime cubed!”);
break;
case 9 :
System.out.println(“Smallest odd prime squared!”);
break;
default :
System.out.println(“Not a digit!”);
break;
} // end of switch
} // end of main
} // end of class

55
More classification
class differentClassification {
public static void main (String arg[]) {
int n = 8;
switch (n) {
case 2:
case 3:
case 5:
case 7:
System.out.println(“Prime!”);
break;
case 1:
case 4:
case 9:
System.out.println(“Square!”);
break;
// continued in next slide

56
More classification

case 6:
System.out.println(“Perfect!”);
break;
case 8:
System.out.println(“Cube!”);
break;
case 0:
System.out.println(“Zero the Great!”);
break;
default:
System.out.println(“Not a digit!”);
break;
} // end switch
} // end main
} // end class

57
More example of switch
class rainbow {
public static void main (String arg[]) {
char c = ‘V’;
switch (c) {
case ‘V’ :
case ‘v’ :
System.out.println (“Violet”);
break;
case ‘I’ :
case ‘i’ :
System.out.println (“Indigo”);
break;
case ‘B’ :
case ‘b’ :
System.out.println (“Blue”);
break;

58
More example of switch

case ‘G’ :

case ‘g’ :
System.out.println (“Green”);
break;
case ‘Y’:
case ‘y’ :
System.out.println (“Yellow”);
break;
case ‘O’ :
case ‘o’ :
System.out.println (“Orange”);
break;
case ‘R’ :
case ‘r’ :
System.out.println (“Red”);
break;
// continued in next slide

59
More example of switch

default :
System.out.println (“You are not in
rainbow!”);
break;
}
}
}

60
Nested loops
• Loop within loop
for (i=0; i<=100; i++) {
for (j=0; j<=100; j++) {
System.out.println (i+j);
}
}
• Number of loops is called the depth of the nest
• The innermost loop executes most frequently
• The outermost loop executes least
• You can nest while loops within for loops and vice-versa
• Loop variables should be different for different loops e.g., i and j
in this case (what happens if both are i ?)

61
Nested loops
for (i1=p1; i1<q1; i1++) {// outermost
statements1 // can be empty
for (i2=p2; i2<q2; i2++) {
statements2 // can be empty
for (i3=p3; i3<q3; i3++) {
statements3 // can be empty
…
for (iN=pN; iN<qN; iN++) { // innermost
statementsN
}
…
}
}
} // How many times does statementsK execute?

62
All perfect numbers
class allPerfectNumbersUptoOneLakh {
public static void main (String arg[]) {
int n, d, sigma_n;
for (n=2; n<=100000; n++) {
sigma_n = 1+n;
for (d=2; d<=n/2; d++) {
if ((n%d)==0) {
sigma_n += d;
}
}
if (sigma_n == 2*n) {
System.out.println (n + “is perfect.”);
}
}
}
}

63
Euclid’s division algorithm

• A fast way to compute the greatest common

divisor of two numbers a and b
• Algorithm (this is not a program)
• Divide b by a, assign a to b and the remainder
to a; loop until a is zero. The value of b at this
point is the gcd.
• Assumes a is less than b
• Main observation: gcd (a, b) = gcd (a, b-a)

64
GCD
class gcd {
public static void main (String arg[]) {
int a = 40, b = 24, r, gcd;
if ((a==0) || (b==0)) {
gcd = (a > b) ? a : b;
}
else if (a < b) {
while (a!=0) {
r = b%a;
b = a;
a = r;
}
gcd = b;
}
// next slide

65
GCD
else {
while (b!=0) {
r = a%b;
a = b;
b = r;
}
gcd = a;
}
System.out.println(“GCD: ” + gcd);
}
}

66
Questions ?

• Let’s move on to the next topic “Methods”

Methods in problem solving

• Often we think of solving a large problem in parts

 Computing the number of digits in n! involves two
major steps: computing k=n! and computing the
number of digits in k
 So I can have two “procedures”, one computes n!
and the other computes the number of digits in it
 Such procedures are called methods
• These are just like functions
 A method may or may not produce a value
 The type of the produced value determines the
“return type” of a method

68
Methods in problem solving

• Methods are useful in carrying out similar type

of computation repeatedly
 Imagine evaluating a polynomial P (x, n) = a0 +
a1x + a2x2 + … + anxn for a particular pair (x0,
n0)
 It is enough to have a single method that takes
a, x and n as arguments or parameters and
computes the value of axn
 We repeatedly “call” this method to evaluate P
(x0, n0)
 Methods improve “modularity” of your program

69
Return and parameter type

• Can be int, float, String, double, char, or void

• We have seen one method so far: main
• It does not produce any value: void
• public static void PrintMyName () {
• System.out.println(“Tintin”);
• }
• Every method must be a part of a class

70
PrintMyName
• class anExample {
• public static void main (String arg[]) {
• PrintMyName(); // Method call
• }

• public static void PrintMyName () {

• // Method declaration
• System.out.println(“Tintin”);
• }
• }

71
Method parameters
• Methods can have parameters also
 Just like functions
• class anExample {
• public static void main (String arg[]) {
• String myName = “Tintin”;
• PrintMyName(myName);
• }

• public static void PrintMyName (String s) {

• System.out.println(s);
• }
• }

72
Method parameters
• class moreExample {
• public static void main (String arg[]) {
• int n = 5;
• double x = 4.6;
• ComputeExponent(x, n);
• }

• public static void ComputeExponent (double base, int index) {

• double y = 1.0;
• System.out.println(“Base: ” + base + “, index: ” + index);
• // continued in next slide

73
Method parameters
• if (index < 0) {
• base = 1/base;
• index = -index;
• }
• while (index > 0) {
• y *= base;
• index--;
• }
• System.out.println(“Required answer: ” + y);
• }
• }

74
Producing values and using them

• Methods can return values to the calling

method
 The calling method can use these values to
compute further
• Suppose we want to check if 2^x + 2^(2x+1) + 1
is a perfect square
 Involves two major procedures: computing 2x +
22x+1 + 1 and checking if it is a square

75
Example of method
• class exampleOfReturnValue {
• public static void main (String arg[]) {
• int x = 4, y = 1, z; // assume x is positive
• boolean isSquare;
• z = ComputePowerOfTwo(x);
• y += z;
• z = ComputePowerOfTwo(2*x+1); // Reuse
• y += z;
• isSquare = CheckSquare(y);
• if (isSquare) {
• System.out.println(“Expression is square for x = ” + x);
• }
• }

76
Example of method

• public static int ComputePowerOfTwo (int

index) {
• int y = 1; // This is a different y
• while (index > 0) {
• y *= 2;
• index--;
• }
• return y;
• }

77
Example of method
• public static boolean CheckSquare (int x) {
• int y; // This is another y
• for (y=0; y*y <= x; y++) {
• if (y*y == x) {
• return true;
• }
• }
• return false;
• }
• } // end class

78
More examples

• class Trigonometry {
• public static void main (String arg[]) {
• double error, x = 0.785; // quarter pi
• error = cos(x)*cos(x) + sin(x)*sin(x) – 1;
• System.out.println(“Error: ” + error);
• }
• // continued in next slide

79
More examples

• public static double cos (double theta) {

• return (1 – theta*theta/2 +
ComputeExponent(theta, 4)/factorial(4));
• }

• public static double sin (double theta) {

• return (theta – ComputeExponent(theta,
3)/factorial(3) + ComputeExponent(theta, 5)/
factorial(5));
• }

80
More examples

• public static double ComputeExponent (double a, int n) {

• double y = 1.0;
• if (n < 0) {
• a = 1/a;
• n = -n;
• }
• while (n > 0) {
• y *= a;
• n--;
• }
• return y;
• }

81
More examples

• public static int factorial (int n) {

• int y = 1;
• while (n > 1) {
• y *= n;
• n--;
• }
• return y;
• }
• } // end class Trigonometry

82
Checking character case
• class characterCase {
• public static void main (String arg[]) {
• char c = ‘A’;
• if (isUpperCase(c)) {
• System.out.println(c + “ is upper case.”);
• }
• else if (isLowerCase(c)) {
• System.out.println(c + “ is lower case.”);
• }
• else {
• System.out.println(c + “ is not in English alphabet.”);
• }
• }// continued in next slide

83
Checking character case

• public static boolean isUpperCase (char c) {

• return (isBetween(‘A’, c, ‘Z’));
• }

• public static boolean isLowerCase (char c) {

• return (isBetween(‘a’, c, ‘z’));
• }
• // continued in next slide

84
Checking character case

• public static boolean isBetween (char a, char

b, char c) {
• return ((a <= b) && (b <= c));
• }
• } // end class

85
Case conversion
• class convertCase {
• public static void main (String arg[]) {
• char c = ‘M’;
• System.out.println(“Original: ” + c);
• if (isBetween(‘A’, c, ‘Z’)) {
• System.out.println(“After conversion: ” + toLower(c));
• }
• else if (isBetween(‘a’, c, ‘z’)) {
• System.out.println(“After conversion: ” + toUpper(c));
• }
• else {
• System.out.println(“Cannot convert case!”);
• }
• } // continued in the next slide

86
Case conversion

• public static boolean isBetween (char a, char b, char c) {

• return ((a <= b) && (b <= c));
• }

• public static char toLower (char c) {

• return (c – ‘A’ + ‘a’);
• }
•
• public static char toUpper (char c) {
• return (c – ‘a’ + ‘A’);
• }
• } // end class

87
Questions ?

• Lets proceed with “Library methods”

Math library

• Math.sqrt (x)
 Takes double, returns double
• Math.pow (x, n)
 Takes two doubles, returns double
• Math.sin (x)
 Takes double, returns double
• Math.cos (x)
 Takes double, returns double
• Check out online Math library and other libraries

89
Roots of a quadratic
• class QuadraticSolver {
• public static void main (String arg[]) {
• double a=1.0, b=-2.0, c=1.0;
• double r1, r2;

• r1 = (-b+Math.sqrt(b*b-4*a*c))/(2*a);
• r2 = (-b-Math.sqrt(b*b-4*a*c))/(2*a);
• System.out.println(“Roots are: ” + r1 + “, ” + r2);
• }
• }

90
Velocity on inclined plane
• class velocityExample{
• public static void main(String arg[]){
• double theta=Math.PI/3.0;
• double g=9.81;
• double x=10;
• double velocity;
• velocity = Math.sqrt(2*g*Math.sin(theta)*x);
• System.out.println(“Final velocity: ” + velocity + “ m/s”);
• }
• }

91
Error in e^PI
• class errorE{
• public static void main(String arg[]){
• double x = Math.PI;
• double approx, error;

• approx = 1 + x + x*x/2 + Math.pow(x, 3)/6 + Math.pow(x,

4)/24;
• error = Math.exp(x) – approx;
• System.out.println(“Error up to fourth power: ” + error);
• }
• }

92
Sum of vectors
• class vectorSum{
• public static void main(String arg[]){
• double v1 = 10.0;
• double v2 = 21.2;
• double angle = 120; // In degrees
• double resultant;

• resultant = Math.sqrt(v1*v1 + v2*v2 -

2*v1*v2*Math.cos(angle*Math.PI/180.0));
• System.out.println(“Resultant of ” + v1 + “ and ” + v2 + “ at ” +
angle + “ degrees is ” + resultant);
• }
• }

93
Which one is bigger?
• class whichOneIsBigger{
• public static void main(String arg[]){
• double x = Math.PI;
• double y = Math.E;
• double difference;

• difference = Math.exp(x) – Math.pow(x, y);

• System.out.println(“Difference: ” + difference);
• }
• }

94
Adiabatic expansion
• class Adiabatic{
• public static void main(String arg[]){
• double P1 = 10;
• double P2 = 15.6;
• double V1 = 100;
• double V2;
• double gamma = 1.66;

• V2 = V1*Math.pow((P1/P2), 1.0/gamma);
• System.out.println(“New volume: ” + V2);
• }
• }

95
Questions ?

Let’s move on to the next topic “Recursion”

Sum of natural numbers
• class SumOfNaturalNumbers {
• public static void main (String arg[]) {
• int m = 3, n = 10;
• if (m > n) {
• System.out.println (“Invalid input!”);
• }
• else {
• System.out.println (“Sum of numbers from ” + m + “ to
” + n + “ is ” + Sum(m, n));
• }
• }

97
Sum of natural numbers

• public static int Sum (int m, int n) {

• int x, y;
• if (m==n) return m;
• x = Sum(m, (m+n)/2);
• y = Sum((m+n)/2+1, n);
• return (x+y);
• }
• } // end class

98
GCD revisited

• Recall that gcd (a, b) = gcd (a-b, b) assuming a >

b.
 Directly defines a recurrence

• public static int gcd (int a, int b) {

• if ((a==1) || (b==1)) return 1;
• if (a==b) return a;
• if (a < b) return gcd (a, b-a);
• if (a > b) return gcd (a-b, b);
• }

99
GCD revisited

• Refinement: gcd (a, b) = gcd (a-nb, b) for any

positive integer n such that a >= nb, in particular
n = a/b, assuming a > b

• public static int gcd (int a, int b) {

• if (0==a) return b;
• if (0==b) return a;
• if (a < b) return gcd (a, b%a);
• if (a > b) return gcd (a%b, b);
• }

100
Towers of Hanoi

• Three pegs, one with n disks of decreasing

diameter; two other pegs are empty
• Task: move all disks to the third peg under the
following constraints
 Can move only the topmost disk from one peg to
another in one step
 Cannot place a smaller disk below a larger one
• An example where recursion is much easier to
formulate than a loop-based solution

101
Towers of Hanoi

• We want to write a recursive method THanoi (n,

1, 2, 3) which moves n disks from peg 1 to peg
3 using peg 2 for intermediate transfers
• The first step is to formulate the algorithm
 Observation: THanoi (n, 1, 2, 3) Ξ THanoi (n-1,
1, 3, 2) followed by transferring the largest disk
to peg 3 from peg 1 and calling THanoi (n-1, 2,
1, 3)
 Stopping condition: n = 1

102
Towers of Hanoi

• class TowersOfHanoi {
• public static void main (String arg[]) {
• int n = 10;
• THanoi(n, 1, 2, 3);
• }
•

103
Towers of Hanoi

• public static void THanoi (int n, int source, int extra, int
destination) {
• if (n > 1) {
• THanoi (n-1, source, destination, extra);
• }
• System.out.println (“Move disk ” + n + “ from peg ” + source
+ “ to peg ” + destination);
• if (n > 1) {
• THanoi (n-1, extra, source, destination);
• }
• } // How many moves needed? 2n-1
• } // end class

104
Towers of Hanoi

• Total number of method calls

 Let Tn be the number of method calls to solve for
n disks
 Tn = 2Tn-1 + 1 for n > 1; T1 = 1
 Use generating function to solve the recurrence
(worked out in class on board)

105
Fibonacci series

• Number of method calls

 Refer to the program in the last lecture
 Let Tn be the number of method calls to find the
nth Fibonacci number
 Tn = Tn-1 + Tn-2 + 1 for n > 2; T1 = T2 = 1
 Use generating function to solve the recurrence
 Observe that Tn = 2Fn – 1 where Fn is the nth
Fibonacci number
 Tn = (21-n/√5)((1+√5)n – (1-√5)n) – 1
 The number (1+√5)/2 is called the golden ratio,
which is lim n ￫∞ (Fn+1/Fn)

106
Questions ?

• Let’s shoot some advanced topics

Hitlist 
• Arrays
• Class
• Interfaces
• Abstract Class
• You suggest something ?

• Thank You