These are some of the tables you are going to

use(appendix-1):
Page Table
910 A-1
911 A-2
916 -917 A-4
918 -919 A-5
920 -923 A-6
928 -929 A-11
930 A-12
931 -921 A-13

English-Unit in appendix-2
3-The Fist law of thermodynamic: Closed systems
3-1 Introduction To The First law
The fist law can be simply stated as follows:
During an interaction between a system and it
surroundings , the amount of energy gained by the
system must be exactly equal to the amount of
energy lost to the Surroundings .
Energy can cross the
boundary of a closed
system in two distinct forms
Heat and Work as shown in
Fig(1).

FIG(1)

3-2 Heat Transfer And Work

When a body is left in a medium which sat a
different Temperature , Energy transfer takes
place between the body and the surrounding
medium until thermal equilibrium is established ,
i.e the body and the medium reaches the same
temperature .The direction of the energy transfer
is always from the higher temperature body to the
lower temperature one.

HEAT is defined as form of energy that is

transferred between two systems or a system
and its surroundings.
Heat is energy in transition

Consider the hot baked potato.

the potato contains energy ,
but this Energy is heat transfer
only as it passes through the skin
of the potato(the system boundary) FIG(2)
to reach the air, as shown in Fig(2). Once in the
surroundings , the transferred heat becomes part of
the internal energy of the surroundings.

Thus in thermodynamics the term heat is simply

means heat transfer.
A process during which there is
no heat transfer is called
Adiabatic process Fig(3) .

There are two ways

a process can be adiabatic:
FIG(3)
1-Either the system is well insulated .

2- Both the system and the surroundings

at the same temperature .
As form of energy, heat has
energy units , kJ(orBtu) being
the most common one. The
amount of heat transferred
during the process between
two states (state1 and 2)is
denoted by or just Q . FIG(4)
Heat transfer per unit mass of a system is
denoted q and is determine from
q=Q/m (kJ/kg)
sometimes it is desirable to know the rate of heat
transfer instead of the total heat transferred over
some time interval Fig(4) .The heat transfer rate
is denoted by Where the over dot stands
 For the time derivative, or “ pre unit time’’.
The heat transfer rate has the unit kJ/s which
is equivalent to kW. When varies with time , the
amount of hear transfer during a process is
determined by integrating over the time
interval of the process:

When r remains constant during a process ,

the relation above reduce to

where is the time interval during the

process occurs.
The universally accepted sign
convention for heat is as follows:
Heat transfer to a system is
Positive , and heat transfer from
the system is Negative Fig(5).
Any heat transfer which increases FIG(5)
the energy of a system is positive , and any
heat transfer which decreases the energy of a
system is negative. Heat can be transferred in
three different ways: conduction, convection ,
and radiation .
Work :Like heat , is an energy interaction between a
system and its surrounding . Energy can cross the
boundary of a close system in the form of heat or
work. Therefore , if the energy crossing the boundary
of a close system is not heat , it must be work.
We can simply say that an energy interaction which is
not caused by a temperature difference between a
system and its surrounding is work. More specifically
work is the energy transfer associated with a force
acting through a distance.
work is also a form of energy like heat and , therefore
The work done during a process between sates 1
and 2 is denoted or W. The work done per unit
mass of a system is denoted w and is defined as:
w=W/m (kJ/kg)
The work done per unit mass is
called Power and is denoted
Fig( 6)the unit of power is kJ/s or
kW.

FIG(6)
The sign convention for work used is:
Work done by a system is positive , and work on
a system is negative Fig(7).

work produced by a system

during a process is positive
and work consumed is
negative.

FIG(7)
Electrical Work:

The electrical work done is :

when N coulombs of electrons move through a

potential difference V.
Which can also expressed in the rate form as

where is electrical power and I is the number of

electrons flowing per unit time . In general both V and
I vary with time and the electrical work done during
a time interval is expressed as:
If both V and I remains constant during the time
Interval this equation will reduce to :

3-3 Mechanical Forms Of Work :

There are several different ways of doing work,
each in some way related to a force acting through
a distance .In elementary mechanics , the work
done by a constant force F on a body which is
displaced a distance s in the direction of the force
is given by: W=FS (kJ)
If the force F is not constant , the work done is
obtained by adding the differential amounts of :

In many thermodynamics problems , mechanical work

is the only form of work involved. It is associated with
the movement of the entire system as whole. Some
common forms of mechanical work are discussed
below:
Moving Boundary Work
One form of mechanical work frequently encountered
in practice is associated with the expansion or
compression of a gas in a piston-cylinder device.
During this process , part of the boundary move
back and forth. Therefore the expansion or
compression is often called moving boundary
work , or simply boundary work Fig(8).
Some prefer to call it the work.
consider the gas enclosed in the piston-
cylinder device Fig(9). The initial FIG(8)
pressure of the gas is P, the total volume FIG(8)
V and the cross-sectional area of the
piston is A. If the piston is allowed to
move a distance ds, the differential
work done during this process is:
The total boundary work done during the entire
process as the piston moves is obtained by adding
all the differential works from the initial state to the
final state:

The expansion process

shown on a P-V dig in
Fig(10). The differential area
dA is equal to PdV which is
the differential work .The
total area A under the
process curve 1-2 is FIG(10)
obtained by adding these
differential areas :
Note :
The boundary work is positive during an expansion
process and negative during compression . Which
is consistent with the sign convention adopted for
work.
EXAMPLE 1 :A rigid tank contains air at 500kPa
and 150C . As a result of heat transfer to the
surroundings , the temperature and pressure
inside the tank drop to 65C and 400kPa .
Determine the boundary work done during this
process.
Solution :
the boundary work can be determined from :

Since a rigid tank has a constant volume .

Therefore , there is no boundary work during this
process . Thus the boundary work done during a
constant-volume process is always zero.
Sketch the P-V diagram of this process.
Example 2:
A piston-cylinder device contains of air at
100kPa and 80C. This air is compressed to
in such a way that the temperature inside the
cylinder remains constant .
Determine the work done during this process , and
sketch the P-V diagram.

SOLUTION : ?????
Polytropic Process : During expansion and
compression of a real gas , pressure and volume
are often related by where n and c are
constant. A process of this kind is called polytropic
process .A sketch of
the system and the P-V
diagram of the process
can are shown in Fig(11
The pressure for a
Polytropic process can be FIG(11)
expressed as:

Substituting this relation into the work done

equation :
Since for ideal gas (PV=mRT) , this
equation can also be written as :

Gravitational Work :can be defined as the work

done by or against a gravitational force filed , the
force acting on a body is : F=mg
where m is the mass of the body and g is the
acceleration of gravity , which is assumed to be
constant . Then the work done to raise this body
from level Z1 to level Z2 is
Where the vertical distance .This
expression is easily recognized as the change
in potential energy.
Note :
The sign of the gravitational work is determined
by inspection : positive is done by the system (as
the system falls) and negative is done on the
system (as the system raised ) .The potential
energy of a system increases when gravitational
work is done on it.
Acceleration Work :The work associated with the
change of velocity of a system is called ,
acceleration work .The acceleration work is
required to accelerate a body of mass m from an
initial velocity of V1 to a final velocity of V2 is
determined from the definition of acceleration and
Newton's second law :

The differential displacement ds is related to

velocity V by .Substituting the

F and ds relations into the work expression

We obtain :

The work done to accelerate the body is independent

Of the path followed and is equivalent to the change
In the kinetic energy of the body.
The sign of accelerational work is determined by
Inspection : positive if done by the system and
Negative if done on the system.
Shaft Work :energy transmission with a rotating shaft
Is very common in engineering practice Fig(12)

FIG(12)
Often the torque applied to the shaft is constant ,
which means that the force F applied is also constant.
For a specific constant torque , the work done during
N revolutions is determine as follows: a force F acting
through a moment arm r generates a torque Fig(12)
which is determined from :

This force acts through a distance s which is related to

the radius r by

then the shaft work is determined from:

the power transmitted through the shaft is the shaft
work done per unit time, which can be expressed as

Where is the number of revolution per unit time.

The sign of the shaft work is also determined by
inspection : positive if done by system negative if done
on the system.
Spring Work :It is a common Knowledge that when a
force is applied on a spring , the length of the spring
changes Fig(13). When the length of the spring
changes by differential amount dx under the influence
of a force F , the work done is

To determine the total spring work ,

we need to know a functional
relationship between F and x .For
linear elastic springs, the displacement x FIG(13)
is proportional to the force applied that is :
Where K is the spring constant and has the unit kN/m .
The displacement x is measured from the undisturbed
position of the spring (that is x=0 when F=0).From the
above two equations and integrating yield :

Where and are the initial and final displacements

of the spring , respectively. Both and are
measured from the undisturbed position of the
spring .
3-4The First law Of Thermodynamics
We have considered various form of energy such as
heat Q , work W , and total energy E ,individually , and
no attempt has been made to relate them to each
other during a process .
The first law of thermodynamics , also known as the
conservation of energy principle , provides a sound
basis for studying the relationships among the various
forms of energy and energy interactions . Based on
experimental observation , the first law states that
energy can be neither created nor destroyed : it can
only change forms.
The first law of thermodynamics , or the conservation
of energy principle for a close system or a fixed mass
may be expressed as follows :

The total energy E of a system is considered to consist

of three parts : internal energy U , kinetic energy KE ,
and potential energy PE . Then the change in total
energy of a system during a process can be expressed
As the sum of the changes in its internal , kinetic ,
and potential energies :

Substituting this relation into the above equation we

obtain :

Most closed systems encountered in practice are

stationary. Thus for stationary closed systems , the
changes in KE and PE are negligible and the first –law
relation reduces to :
Some times it is convenient to consider the work term
in two parts: and where represents all
forms of work except the boundary work . Then the
first law takes the following form:

it is important that the sign convention be observed

for heat and work interactions.
Other Forms Of The First-Law Relations :

Note :
For a cycle process , the initial and final states are
identical therefore Then the first-law
relation for a cycle simplified to :
A Systematic Approach To problem Solving :
Thermodynamics problems , particularly the
complicated ones , require a systematic approach. By
using a step-by-step approach , an engineer can solve
a series of simple problems instead of one large ,
formidable problem.
Sample problem :
A 0.1m3 rigid tank contains steam initially at 500kPa
and 200C . The steam is now allowed to cool until its
temperature drops to 50C . Determine the amount of
heat transfer during this process and the final pressure
in the tank.
Solution:
Step 1 :
Drew a sketch and
identify the system

Step 2 :
List the given information
on the sketch
Step 3:
Check for special process

Step 4:
State any assumptions
Step5:
Apply the conservation
equations

Step6:
Drew a process
diagram
Step7:
Determine the required properties and the unknowns

Solution:

Q=m(u2-u1)
Example3: A piston cylinder device contains 25g of
saturated vapour which is maintained at a constant
pressure of 300kPa . A resistance heater within the
cylinder is turned on and passes a current of 0.2 A for
5min from 120-V source. At the same time , a heat
loss of 3.7 kJ occurs .
(a)Show that for a closed system the boundary work
and the internal energy in the first-law relation can
be combined into one term ∆H for a constant
Pressure process.
(b) Determine the final Temperature of the steam.
Solution: ??????
3-5 Specific Heats :

The specific heat is defined as: The energy required to

raise the Temp of a unit mass of a substance by one
degree. In thermodynamics we are interested in two
kind of specific heats:
Specific heat at constant volume Cv and specific heat

at Constant pressure Cp.

The specific heats can be

expressed in terms of other thermodynamics

Properties.
The first-law of thermodynamic can be expressed in
the differential forms as: The left
hand side of this equation represents the amount of
energy transferred to the system in the form of heat
and/or work . From the definition of Cv , this energy
must be equal to where dT is the differential
Similarly , an expression for the specific heat at
constant pressure Cp can be obtained by considering
a constant-pressure process
It yields

3-6 Internal Energy , Enthalpy , And specific Heats of

Ideal Gases : we defined an ideal gas as whose Temp ,
Pressure , and specific volume are related by

For an ideal gas the internal energy is a function of

Temperature only . That is ,
Using the definition of enthalpy and the equation of
state of an ideal gas we have

Since R is constant and it follows that the

enthalpy of an ideal gas is also a function of Temp only

Then the differential changes in the internal energy

and enthalpy of an ideal gas can be expressed as
The change for internal energy or enthalpy for an ideal
gas during a process from state 1 to state 2 is
determined by integration these equations:

To carry out these integrations , we need to have

relations for Cv and Cp as functions of Temperature.
At low pressure all real gases approach ideal-gas
behaviour , and therefore their specific heats depends
on temperature only. The specific heats of real gases
at low pressure are called :
Ideal gas specific heats , or zero-pressure specific
heats , and are often denoted Accurate
analytical expressions for ideal-gas specific heats are
available and given in (Table A-2c) for several gases .
These tables are obtained by choosing an arbitrary
reference and performing the integration for the above
equations by treating state 1 as the reference state.
The specific heats of gases with complex molecules are
higher and increase with temperature. Also the
variations of specific heats with Temp is smooth and
may by approximated as linear over small Temperature
intervals . Then the specific heat functions in the above
equations can be replaced by the constant average
specific heat values. Now the integration will be
The specific heat values for some common gases are
listed as a function of Temp in Table A-2b.
To summarize , there three ways to determine the
internal energy and the enthalpy changes of ideal
gases :
Specific- Heat Relations of Ideal gases :
A special relationship between Cp and Cv for ideal
Gases can be obtained by differentiating the relation
which yields replacing
and dividing the resulting
expression by we obtain

This is an important relationship for ideal gas since it

enable us to determine Cv from the knowledge of Cp
and the gas constant R.
When the specific heats are given on a molar basis , R
in the above equation should be replaced by the
universal gas constant . That is
As this point we introduce another ideal- gas property
Called the specific heat ratio k, defined as:

The specific heat ratio also varies with temperature

but this variation is very mild.
3-7 Internal Energy , Enthalpy , And Specific Heats Of
Solids And Liquids :
A substance whose specific volume (or density) is
constant is called incompressible substance . The
specific volumes of solids and liquids essentially
remains constant during a process . Therefore liquids
and solids can be approximated as incompressible
substance without sacrificing much in accuracy.
The constant volume and constant pressure specific
heats can be represented by a single symbol C. That is

This results could also be deduced from the physical

definitions of constant-volume and constant-pressure
specific heats. These values are given in Table A-3.
Like those of ideal gases , the specific heats of
Incompressible substances depend on temperature
only . Thus the partial differentials in the defining
equation of Cv can be replaced by ordinary differential
which yields :

The change of internal energy between states 1 and 2

is hen obtained by integration :

The variation of specific heat C with temperature

should be known before this integration can be carried
out.
For small temperature intervals , a C value at the
average temperature can be used and treated as a
constant , yields

The enthalpy change of incompressible substances

(solid or liquid) during process 1-2 can be determined
from the definition of enthalpy to be

since It can also be expressed in a

compact forms as :

The second term is often small compared with the

First term and can be neglected without significant
loss of accuracy . For a constant –Temp process
the internal energy change of an
incompressible substance is zero. Then the change of
enthalpy will be By taking state 2 as
the compressed liquid state and state 1 as the
saturated liquid state at the same Temp, the enthalpy
of the compressed liquid at a given P and T can be
determined from :

Note: the enthalpy of the compressed could be taken

As at the given Temp (that is
However , the contribution of the last term is often
Very small , so it is neglected.
Example 4 A piston-cylinder device contains air at
150kPa and 27C . At this state , the piston is resting on
a pair of stops as shown in Fig (14) and the enclosed
volume is 400L . The mass of the piston is such that
a 350kPa pressure is required to move it. The air is
now heated until it volume has doubled.
Determine : (a) the final Temp . (b) the work done by
the air , and (c) the total heat added.
Solution: ????

FIG(14)
Sheet 2
Q1-What is the difference between saturated
vapour and superheated vapour?
Q2- Why are the temperature and pressure
dependent properties in the saturated mixture
region?
Q3-What is the difference between the critical
point and the triple point?
Q4-Can the enthalpy of a pure substance at a
given state be determined from a knowledge of
u, p and v data? How?
Q5-what is quality? Does it have any meaning in
superheated region?
Q6-

During an expansion process, the pressure of a

gas changes from 100 to 900kPa according to the
relation P=aV+b, where a=1MPa/m3 and b is a
constant. If the initial volume of the gas is 0.2 m3
Calculate the work done during the process.
Ans=400KJ.
Q-7
A piston-cylinder device contains 50kg of water at
150kPa and 25C. The cross-sectional area of the piston
is 0.1m2 . Heat is now transferred to the water, cau-
sing part of it to evaporate and expand. When the
volume reaches0.2m3 , the piston reaches a linear
spring whose spring constant is 100kN/m. More
heat is transferred to the water until the spring
rises 20cm more. Determine:
(a)the final pressure and the Temp.
(b) the work done during the process. Also show
the process on a P-V diagram.
Ans:(a) 350kPa, 138.88C (b)27.5kJ.
Q8-
A frictionless piston cylinder device contains 8Kg
of superheated water vapour at 500kPa and 300C.
Steam is now cooled at constant pressure until 70% of
it ,by mass condenses.
Determine: The work done during this process.
Ans = -1638KJ
Q9-
A piston-cylinder device with a set of stops contains
10Kg of R-134a. Initially,8Kg of the refrigerant is in the
Liquid form, and the temperature is -10C. Now heat is
Transferred slowly to the refrigerant until the piston
Hits the stops, at which point the volume is 400L.
Determine:
(a)The Temp when the piston first hit the stops

(b)The work done during this process.

(c) Also show the process on a P-V diagram.