SKT

MULTIPLEXING AND MULTIPLE

ACCESS
 6.3
Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of
available bandwidth to achieve
specific goals.

Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing; privacy

and anti-jamming can be achieved by spreading.
MULTIPLEXING

• Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two

devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the

6.4
devices, the link can be shared.

• Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the

simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a
single data link.
MULTIPLEXING

• Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)

• Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM)

• Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing (Synchronous-TDM)

• Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing (Statistical -TDM)

Categories of multiplexing
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
• BW of the link is greater than combined BW of the link
• Signal Generated by each device is modulated with a
different carrier frequency
• These modulated signals are combined to form a composite
signal
• Carrier frequencies are separated with guard band
FDM process
FDM demultiplexing example
Analog hierarchy
 Wavelength-division multiplexing
• WDM is same as FDM except that WDM involves light
• WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine
optical signals.
• The frequencies are very high
Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing
 Time –Division Multiplexing (TDM)
• TDM is digital process
• Allows several connections to share high BW of a link based
on time
 Synchronous time-division multiplexing
• Each input connection has allotment in the output even if it is not
sending data
 Interleaving
• The mux and demux are synchronized so that data units from a
input connection goes to correct output connection .
• Mux & demux can be thought of as rotating switches of same
speed.
Empty slots
If data rates of connections is not same , some strategies have to
be used like Multilevel multiplexing, Multiple-slot multiplexing,
Pulse stuffing
Multilevel multiplexing
Multiple-slot multiplexing
Pulse stuffing
 Framing bits for Frame Synchronization
• These are used to synchronize Mux and demux , so that unit
belonging to one channel may not be received by wrong channel.
• Generally it is alternating 0 and 1 bit per frame put at beginning
of each frame
Digital hierarchy or Digital signal(DS) service.
 6.22
Digital Signal and T line rates
T-1 line for multiplexing telephone lines
T-1 frame structure
 Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
• Slots are dynamically alloted
• When an input line has data worth for sending in slot is given a
slot in the output frame
• Output Slot is occupied by data and address
• No synchronization bits are required
•
TDM slot comparison
SPREAD SPECTRUM

• In spread spectrum (SS), signals from different

sources to fit into a larger bandwidth, but our goals are

6.27
to prevent eavesdropping and jamming.
• To achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques
add redundancy.

• Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Synchronous (DSSS)
Spread spectrum

6.28
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

6.29
Frequency selection in FHSS

6.30
FHSS cycles

6.31
Bandwidth sharing

6.32
Figure 6.32 DSSS

6.33
DSSS example

6.34
Multiple Access
Taxonomy of multiple-access protocols

12.36
RANDOM ACCESS
• In random access or contention methods, no station is superior
to another station and none is assigned the control over another.
• No station permits, or does not permit, another station to send.
• At each instance, a station that has data to send uses a procedure
defined by the protocol to make a decision on whether or not to
send.
PURE ALOHA

 Developed at University of Hawaii,in early 1970, initially designed for

wireless LAN, but can be used for any shared medium
Frames in a pure ALOHA network

12.39
Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol
Vulnerable time for pure ALOHA protocol

 Vulnerable time is the time in which there is possibility of collision = 2* T fr

The throughput ( Avg no of succesful transmissions ) for pure ALOHA is
 S = G × e −2G .
 Where G = Avg. no of frames generated by the whole system ( all stations)
during one frame transmission time
 And the maximum throughput is
 Smax = 0.184 when G= (1/2).
SLOTTED ALOHA
 Improved version of pure ALOHA
 There is still the possibility of collision…??
 But now Vulnerable time is reduced to half and it is= T fr

seconds
Frames in a slotted ALOHA network

12.44
Vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA protocol
The throughput for slotted ALOHA is
 S = G × e−G .

The maximum throughput

 Smax = 0.368 when G = 1. ( double than pure ALOHA)
CARRIER SENSE MULTIPLE ACCESS
 It improves the efficiency further , by minimizing the chance
of collision.
 In this the stations sense the medium (Carrier Sense) before
sending data on it. i.e. listen before talk or Sense before
transmit
 It can reduce collisions but cannot eliminate it altogether.
WHY? Answer on next slide
Space/time model of the collision in CSMA
Vulnerable time in CSMA

 Vulnerable time for CSMA is the propagation time Tp. It is the

time required for signal to go from one end of medium to the
other . By the time 1st reaches the farthest end , all the middle
stations have heard the bit , so they will refrain from sending.
PERSISTENCE METHODS
 What should a station do if the channel is busy?
 What should a station do if the channel is idle?
 There are three solutions to these questions:
 1- persistence
 Non persistence
 P- persistence
Behavior of three persistence methods together
Flow diagram for three persistence methods
 CSMA/CD
 CSMA does not specify the procedure after collision .
 CSMA/CD ( collision detection)specifies it .

 Q : How stations can detect collisions?

Collision of the first bit in CSMA/CD
Collision and abortion in CSMA/CD
Flow diagram for the CSMA/CD
 Throughput
 It is greater than Aloha (both pure and slotted)
 It is different for different values of G, p

 For 1-persistent it is ~50% when G=1

 For non persistent it is ~90% when G = 3 to 8
CSMA/CA

CSMA/CD works well for wired network. but not for wireless network.
Why?

In wired ,the received signal has almost same energy-

In wireless , Much of the sent energy is lost in transmission

So collision may add only 5 to 10%. Which is very difficult to

detect
- Timing in CSMA/CA

 IFS( inter frame space)

 The IFS can also be used to define the priority of a station or a frame. Since
st with less IFs will have higher priority
 Contention window :
 After IFS time if the ch is still idle , st has to wait for a time called contention period
before it can send.
 See next slide
 Contention window:
 It is amount of time divided into slots .

 ACK :
 Even with all these precautions , there may still be collisions or damaged
data because of noise. So positive ACK and time out timer can guarantee
that ,the Rx receives the frame.
Flow diagram for CSMA/CA
CONTROLLED ACCESS
• In controlled access, the stations consult one another to find
which station has the right to send.
• A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other
stations. Three popular controlled-access methods.
• Reservation
• Polling
• Token Passing
Reservation access method

12.63
Select and poll functions in polling access method

12.64
Logical ring and physical topology in token-passing access method

12.65
CHANNELIZATION
• Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the
available bandwidth of a link is shared in time, frequency, or
through code, between different stations.
• Three channelization protocols.
1.Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
2.Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
3.Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)
In FDMA, the available bandwidth
• of the common channel is divided into bands that are separated
by guard bands.
 Q: What is difference between FDMA and FDM?

 FDM :
 It is physical layer technique-
 Eg. Telephone system

 FDMA:
 It is an access method ( MAC) in data link layer.
 Eg. Radio stations using FM
 What is difference between FDM and FDMA ? And FDD.

FDM FDMA

Implemented at PL Implemented at DLL

Used for Wired media Used for Wireless media

Uses physical multiplexer No multiplexer

Eg landline telephone Mobile phone, FM radio stations

FDD : uses Different freq for upstream and downstream eg mobile

 Time-division multiple access (TDMA)
• In TDMA, the bandwidth is just one channel that is
timeshared between different stations.

 Q: What is difference between TDM and TDMA?

- TDM
CDMA ( CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS )
 All stations use whole BW of the channel all the time !
 How is this possible? Since all signals will get mixed causing no
communication.

In CDMA, one channel carries all

transmissions simultaneously.
ORTHOGONAL SEQUENCE

 The codes assigned to ‘n’ stations should have following properties

1) multiplication of a code with itself gives result ‘n’
2) multiplication of a code with another gives result ‘0’
Simple idea of communication with code
Chip sequences

 The codes are also called as chips

 They have what is called orthogonal sequence property.
 Eg shown below:
Data representation in CDMA
Sharing channel in CDMA
Digital signal created by four stations in CDMA

station
Decoding of the composite signal for one in CDMA
General rule and examples of creating Walsh tables

 The chips can be generated by Walsh table.

 Summary of Channelization