Discrete Mathematics

Abdelrahman Busati
College of Information Technology
University of Fujairah
Algorithms .3
Introduction 3.1.1

Setting up the appropriate mathematical model is only part of

the solution. To complete the solution, a method is needed that
will solve the general problem using the model. Ideally, what
is required is a procedure that follows a sequence of steps that
leads to the desired answer. Such a sequence of steps is called
an algorithm.
 3.1.1 Introduction
EXAMPLE 1: Describe an algorithm for finding the maximum (largest) value in a
finite sequence of integers.
Solution: We perform the following steps.
1. Set the temporary maximum equal to the first integer in the sequence. (The
temporary maximum will be the largest integer examined at any stage of the
procedure.)
2. Compare the next integer in the sequence to the temporary maximum, and if
it is larger than the temporary maximum, set the temporary maximum equal
to this integer.
3. Repeat the previous step if there are more integers in the sequence.
4. Stop when there are no integers left in the sequence. The temporary
maximum at this point is the largest integer in the sequence. ◂
3.1.1 Introduction
• An algorithm can also be described using a computer language.
However, when that is done, only those instructions permitted in the
language can be used. So, instead of using a particular computer
language to specify algorithms, a form of pseudocode, described in
Appendix 3, will be used in this book. (We will also describe
algorithms using the English language.) Pseudocode provides an
intermediate step between an English-language description of an
algorithm and an implementation of this algorithm in a programming
language.
3.1.1 Introduction
A pseudocode description of the algorithm for finding the
maximum element in a finite sequence follows.
 3.1.1 Introduction
PROPERTIES OF ALGORITHMS There are several properties that algorithms generally share.
They are useful to keep in mind when algorithms are described. These properties are:
• Input. An algorithm has input values from a specified set.
• Output. From each set of input values, an algorithm produces output values from a
specified set. The output values are the solution to the problem.
• Definiteness. The steps of an algorithm must be defined precisely.
• Correctness. An algorithm should produce the correct output values for each set of input
values.
• Finiteness. An algorithm should produce the desired output after a finite (but perhaps
large) number of steps for any input in the set.
• Effectiveness. It must be possible to perform each step of an algorithm exactly and in a
finite amount of time.
• Generality. The procedure should be applicable for all problems of the desired form, not
just for a particular set of input values.
 3.1.1 Introduction
EXAMPLE 2: Show that Algorithm 1 for finding the maximum element in a finite
sequence of integers has all the properties listed.
• Solution: The input to Algorithm 1 is a sequence of integers. The output is the
largest integer in the sequence. Each step of the algorithm is precisely defined,
because only assignments, a finite loop, and conditional statements occur. To
show that the algorithm is correct, we must show that when the algorithm
terminates, the value of the variable max equals the maximum of the terms of
the sequence. To see this, note that the initial value of max is the first term of
the sequence; as successive terms of the sequence are examined, max is
updated to the value of a term if the term exceeds the maximum of the terms
previously examined. This (informal) argument shows that when all the terms
have been examined, max equals the value of the largest term
3.1.2 Searching Algorithms
The general searching problem can be described as follows:
Locate an element x in a list of distinct elements a1, a2, … , an,
or determine that it is not in the list. The solution to this
search problem is the location of the term in the list that
equals x (that is, i is the solution if x = ai ) and is 0 if x is not in
the list.
 3.1.2 Searching Algorithms
THE LINEAR SEARCH The first algorithm that we will present is called
the linear search, Links or sequential search, algorithm. The linear
search algorithm begins by comparing x and a1. When x = a1, the
solution is the location of a1, namely, 1. When x ≠ a1, compare x with
a2. If x = a2, the solution is the location of a2, namely, 2. When x ≠ a2,
compare x with a3. Continue this process, comparing x successively
with each term of the list until a match is found, where the solution is
the location of that term, unless no match occurs. If the entire list has
been searched without locating x, the solution is 0. The pseudocode
for the linear search algorithm is displayed as Algorithm 2.
3.1.2 Searching Algorithms
 3.1.2 Searching Algorithms
THE BINARY SEARCH We will now consider another searching algorithm.
This algorithm can be used when the list has terms occurring in order of
increasing size (for instance: if the terms are numbers, they are listed
from smallest to largest; if they are words, they are listed Links in
lexicographic, or alphabetic, order). This second searching algorithm is
called the binary search algorithm. It proceeds by comparing the
element to be located to the middle term of the list. The list is then split
into two smaller sublists of the same size, or where one of these smaller
lists has one fewer term than the other. The search continues by
restricting the search to the appropriate sublist based on the comparison
of the element to be located and the middle term
3.1.2 Searching Algorithms
EXAMPLE 3: To search for 19 in the list: 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 10 12 13 15 16 18 19 20 22,
• first split this list, which has 16 terms, into two smaller lists with eight terms each,
namely,
1 2 3 5 6 7 8 10 12 13 15 16 18 19 20 22.
• Then, compare 19 and the largest term in the first list. Because 10 < 19, the search
for 19 can be restricted to the list containing the 9th through the 16th terms of the
original list. Next, split this list, which has eight terms, into the two smaller lists of
four terms each, namely,
12 13 15 16 18 19 20 22.
• Because 16 < 19 (comparing 19 with the largest term of the first list) the search is
restricted to the second of these lists, which contains the 13th through the 16th
terms of the original list.
 3.1.2 Searching Algorithms
The list 18 19 20 22 is split into two lists, namely,
18 19 20 22.
• Because 19 is not greater than the largest term of the first of these two lists,
which is also 19, the search is restricted to the first list: 18 19,
Because 19 is not greater than the largest term of the first of these two lists,
which is also 19, the search is restricted to the first list: 18 19, which contains
the 13th and 14th terms of the original list. Next, this list of two terms is split
into two lists of one term each: 18 and 19. Because 18 < 19, the search is
restricted to the second list: the list containing the 14th term of the list, which is
19. Now that the search has been narrowed down to one term, a comparison is
made, and 19 is located as the 14th term in the original list.
 3.1.2 Searching Algorithms
• We now specify the steps of the binary search algorithm. To search for the
integer x in the list a1, a2, … , an, where a1 < a2 < ⋯ < an, begin by comparing x
with the middle term am of the list, where m = ⌊(n + 1)∕2⌋. (Recall that ⌊x⌋ is
the greatest integer not exceeding x.) If x > am, the search for x is restricted to
the second half of the list, which is am+1, am+2, … , an. If x is not greater than
am, the search for x is restricted to the first half of the list, which is a1, a2, … ,
am. Incomplete
• The search has now been restricted to a list with no more than ⌈n∕2⌉
elements. (Recall that ⌈x⌉ is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x.)
Using the same procedure, compare x to the middle term of the restricted list.
Then restrict the search to the first or second half of the list. Repeat this
process until a list with one term is obtained. Then determine whether this
3.1.2 Searching Algorithms