WPE 307

Theory of Color Physics

Colorimetry and color specification

system
Colorimetry:
•Colorimetry methods such a system of color specification allows
rapid and objective communication of color information, the
specification of acceptable color tolerances, and the resolution of
disagreements between observers. Colorimetry is widely used in many
industries.
•Colorimetry is a scientific technique that is used to determine the
concentration of colored compounds in solutions by the application of
the Beer–Lambert law, which states that the concentration of a solute
is proportional to the absorbance.
Fundamental laws of color mixing:
Classified into two types namely:
•Additive color mixing occurs when two or more lights mix together.
•Subtractive color mixing occurs when colorants are mixed together.

Virtually all our visible colors can be produced by utilizing some

combination of the three primary colors, either by additive or
subtractive processes.
Additive color/ light theory:
For additive combination of colors, as in overlapping projected lights
or in CRT displays, the primary colors normally used are red (R),
green (G), and blue (B). The result of ad­ditive mixing of the
primaries are listed below,
R + G = Y (Yellow),
G + B = C (Cyan or blue-green)
B + R = M (Magenta)
R + G + B = W (white)
Subtractive color/ Pigment theory:
For subtractive combination of colors, as in mixing of pigments or
dyes, such as in dyeing or printing, the primaries normally used are
cyan (C), magenta (M), and yellow (Y), though the set of red,
yellow, blue is popular among artists.
The subtractive primaries can be obtained by removing red, green and
blue from white light using respective colored filters namely
W – R = C (- R)
W – G = M (- G),
W – B = Y (- B),
M+Y+C= B (Black)
Additive Colors/Light theory:
•Additive color mixing occurs with the simultaneous action of
various color sensations – ‘irritants’ on the eye. It encounters
wherever the different color values superimpose and as an optical
impression interfere with each other.
•Basic colors: Additive color synthesis occurs when three light zones
are mixed optically (red, green, and blue).

•Additive color synthesis: green + red = yellow,

Blue + red = magenta,
Blue + green = cyan.
•RGB is a system of additive color synthesis. The color display is
obtained by the different light intensity of the primary colors: red,
green and blue. This system is used for works intended for monitor
display.
Subtractive Colors/ Pigment theory:
•Subtractive (multiplicative) color mixing, contrary to the additive, is
not mixing of color ‘irritants’, but creating color by subtraction.
Namely, it is based on a change of light color when passing through or
reflecting the light from the layers of dye or pigment.
•Basic colors: Subtractive synthesis occurs by mixing the basic
material colors (cyan, magenta and yellow).
•Subtractive mixing occurs: yellow + magenta = red,
Yellow + cyan = green,
Magenta + cyan = blue.

•CMYK is a system of subtractive color synthesis. The color display

is obtained by filtering out the primary light color from white complex
light.
When to Choose RGB vs. CMYK:
•If the final product is for print, remember to convert the color
mode from RGB to CMYK. If the final product will only appear
on a screen or monitor, keep the color mode as RGB.
•Additive colors use transmitted light, the colors appear much
brighter and create a larger visible spectrum, producing millions of
colors on a screen.
•Subtractive colors use reflected light, so they appear muted in
contrast.
•Limited by the ink pigments and tints, a printer can only replicate
several hundred thousand colors. Because of this, the RGB colors
on a monitor do not always equally translate into CMYK colors
when printed on paper or other substrates.
Color matching functions:
Color matching functions are the numerical description of the
chromatic response of the observer (described above). They can be
thought of as the spectral sensitivity curves of three linear light
detectors yielding the CIE tristimulus values X, Y and Z.
Method for Measuring Color Matching Functions:
•Color match to a reference color generated by a pure spectral source
at wavelength λ.
•Record the tristimulus values of x10 (λ), y10 (λ), and z10 (λ) that you
obtain.
•Repeat for all values of λ.
CIE Standard RGB Color Matching Functions:
•An organization knows Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage
(CIE) defined all practical standards for color measurements
(colorimetery).
•CIE 1931 Standard 20 Observer:
i. Uses color patches that subtended 20 of visual angle.
ii. R, G, B color primaries are defined by pure line spectra (delta
functions in wavelength) at 700nm, 546.1nm, and 435.8nm.
iii. Reference color is a spectral line at wavelength λ.
•CIE 1965 100 Observer: A slightly different standard based on a 100
reference color patch and a different measurement technique.
Tristimulus Values:
Tristimulus values measure the light intensity of the primary color
values in a sample. The name is derived from the three (tri) primary
color values (stimuli) measured. Tristimulus values express the color
and visually perceived reflectance.

tristimulus system, a system for visually matching a color under

standardized conditions against the three primary colors—red, green,
and blue; the three results are expressed as X, Y, and Z, respectively,
and are called tristimulus values.
Fig: tristimulus value
Color tristimulus values:
The values on this three dimensional subspace are called tristimulus
values.
CIE XYZ: The CIE 1931 color space is build from three axes X, Y
and Z. They correspond to the color sensitive cones in our eyes. As a
rule of thumb one should remember that X correlates to red, Y to
green and Z to blue.

CIELAB: L*a*b* is one color space derived from the CIE 1931
color space. It takes into account that we differentiate colors in three
opposing dimensions:
•Lightness - a color is darker or brighter ⇒ L*
•Hue
1. a color can be either greenish or reddish, but not both at the
same time ⇒ a*
2. a color can be either bluish or yellowish, but not both at the
same time ⇒ b*
Color point: The Y value describes not only the greenish portion of a
color, but stands also for the luminance of a color and is directly
related to the brightness perception. In applications where the
brightness of a color is not relevant a color can be described with just
two numbers. The so-called chromaticity describes a color point with
a specific hue and saturation. The most used metrics are CIExy and
u'v'.
Tristimulus Values and the CIE Color Model Is
Important for Color Measurement:
Tristimulus values and the CIE color model are valuable for color
measurements because they:
•Quantify color: Tristimulus values from a spectrophotometer give
colors a quantifiable measurement value.
•Objectify color: Tristimulus values are an objective — and reliable
— measurement because the spectrophotometer cannot be influenced.
The human eye is not the best method for color measurements because
it can be easily influenced and is not objective.
•Communicate color: Tristimulus values allow a color to be
communicated through values so it can be recreated.
Color appearance:
Color appearance is generated by the activity of two chromatic
opponent mechanisms and one luminance mechanism. Each of these
mechanisms receives input from the three cone types.

Color appearance depends on-

•The appearance of any color is necessarily and
sufficiently described by the extent to which it
is reddish-versus-greenish, bluish-versus-
yellowish, and blackish-versus-whitish; and
•That these appearance mechanisms are
hardwired in the nervous.
•The appearance of an object's color is often
influenced by environmental elements, surface
conditions, and optical illusions. They can make
a color look darker, lighter, duller, or brighter.
The CIE color system:
•The CIE system is the basis of modern colorimetry.
•The CIE has defined a system that classifies color according to the
HVS (the human visual system).
•The system can be confusing at first because of the use of so-called
imaginary primaries (XYZ).
•However, it is important to realize that the most important properties
of the CIE system are independent of the actual primaries that are
used.

CIE color system:

•The CIE color model is a color space model created by the
International Commission on Illumination known as the Commission
Internationale de l'Elcairage (CIE).
•It is also known as the CIE XYZ color space or the CIE 1931 XYZ
color space.
The function of CIE:
The Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) developed a
system for the specification of color stimuli that was recommended
for widespread use in 1931 and that has formed the basis of
colorimetry for the last 80 years.

Fig: the CIE 1931 color matching function X, Y and Z

The function of CIE:
•Color matching functions are the numerical description of the
chromatic response of the observer (described above).
•They can be thought of as the spectral sensitivity curves of three
linear light detectors yielding the CIE tristimulus values X, Y and Z.
•The CIE system works by weighting the SPD of an object in terms
of three color matching functions.
•These functions are the sensitivities of a standard observer to light
of different wavelengths.
•The weighting is performed over the visual spectrum, from around
360nm to 830nm in set intervals.
L*a*b* color value:
The International Commission on Illumination (CIE) developed
the L*a*b* color model in 1976 with the intent of creating a standard
for color communication. When creating the CIELAB color space, the
CIE drew inspiration from the CIE 1931 XYZ color space, as well as
the Munsell color system. All of these models use three data points to
define and plot a color.
L*a*b* color value:
The CIELAB color space, also referred to as L*a*b*, is a color
space defined by the International Commission on Illumination
(abbreviated CIE) in 1976.
Identifying Color Differences using
CIE L*a*b* Coordinates.
It expresses color as three values:
•L* for perceptual lightness. On the
color space diagram, L* is represented
on a vertical axis with values from 0
(black) to 100 (white)
• a* for the two unique colors of human
vision: red, green
• b* for the two unique colors of human
vision: blue, yellow.
CMC color tolerance:
•CMC is not a color space but a color tolerance represented by a
single numerical value, E.
•CMC is based on CIE L* C* H*
Where,
L is lightness,
C is chroma, and
H is hue.
•The CMC calculation defines an ellipsoid around the standard color
while the volume of the ellipsoid represents acceptable color
variation.
Color strength (K/S):
•The color strength of a dyed fabric is measured using
spectrophotometer. Absorption co-efficient (K) and scattering
coefficient(S) and their ratio K/S is a measure of color strength.
•K' and 'S' are absorption and scattering coefficients of dyed
sample. Relative color strength (%) is calculated from reflectance, R
using Kubelka-Munk equation as follows:
Munsell color system:
•Munsell color system, method of designating colors based on a color
arrangement scheme developed by the American art instructor and
painter Albert H. Munsell.
•It defines colors by measured scales of hue, value, and chroma,
which correspond respectively to dominant wavelength, brightness,
and strength or purity.
•Munsell introduced his system in 1913 with the publication of
the Atlas of the Munsell Color System, which featured 15 color charts
consisting of several hundred colour chips arranged according to the
three characteristics of hue, value, and chroma.
•After Munsell’s death in 1918, the Munsell Color Company, Inc.,
carried on his work, publishing a new edition of the Atlas under the
title Munsell Book of Color (1929).
•A three-dimensional representation of the Munsell system,
sometimes called the Munsell colour tree, is shown in the figure.
Munsell color system
Trichromatic Color Theory:
•The trichromatic theory of color vision says that human eyes only
perceive three colors of light: red, blue, and green.
•The wavelengths of these three colors can be combined to create
every color on the visible light spectrum.
•This theory was first suggested by Thomas Young and later tested by
Hermann Von Helmholtz.
Trichromatic Color Theory:
•The trichromatic theory of color vision suggests that people have
cells that detect blue, red, and green wavelengths.
•These are then combined into other colors to create a visible
spectrum.
•For example, while we often see greenish-blue or blueish-reds, we do
not see reddish-green or yellowish-blue.

The applications of trichromatic theory:

Televisions, computer monitors, phones and cameras are based on
trichromatic principles, in particular that each pixel is represented by
three dots (red, green and blue), with the ability to increase the
brightness of each dot from off to fully on.
Fig: Trichromatic Color Theory of color vision
Color Vision Work:
•Color vision is the ability to live beings to distinguish objects based
on the wavelengths (or frequencies) of the light they reflect, emit, or
transmit. The physiological cause of color vision in humans is that
cells in the retina are sensitive to different wavelengths of light.

•Light rays reflect off the surface and enter our eye when we look at
an object. Part of our eye called the retina, contains special cells called
cones that sense the wavelengths of light. There are three types of
cone cells, each responding to a different range of wavelengths —
short (blue), medium (green), and long (red).
•The brain receives information from the different colors and
combines them into one image that makes sense. Our brain also uses
visual cues such as brightness, shadow, and contrast to interpret what
we see. The human eye can detect approximately 10 million colors.
Trichromatic Theory vs. Opponent-process:
•The opponent-process theory states that there are three pairs of
opposing colors. These three pairs of colors include red vs. green, blue
vs. yellow, and black vs. white. This theory states that each color
triggers the production of its opposite color in the brain. For example,
when you look at a red object, your brain produces green retinal
receptors and vice versa.

•On the other hand, the trichromatic theory proposes three types of
cones; red cones, green cones, and blue cones. All different colors are
mixes of these three primary colors. For example, yellow is a mix of
red and green, while violet is a mix of red and blue.
Metamerism:
•In colorimetry, metamerism is when two colors that are not actually
the same color appear the same under certain lighting conditions.
•This occurs because the colors have different spectral power
distributions, which causes them to reflect contrasting wavelengths of
light.

•Colors that match under some lights but not others are called
metamers.
•These subjective color matches are most common in near neutral or
dark colors, and are problematic when it comes to purchasing clothing
or painting a room.
Metamerism:
•Metamerism is a phenomenon that occurs when two colors appear to
match under one lighting condition, but not when the light changes.

•Metameric matches are quite common, especially in near neutral

colors like grays, whites, and dark colors like these.
•As colors become lighter or more saturated, the range of possible
metameric matches becomes smaller.
Causes of Metamerism:
•Light sources:A light source emits various wavelengths of light that an
object reflects or absorbs. The wavelengths reflected control the color we
perceive on the object.
For instance, an LED bulb only emits red and blue wavelengths. An
object would look darker than it appears outside under the sun’s broad
spectrum.
•Variations in the viewing angle:Metamerism occurs when two objects
only match if viewed from one angle. Colors change when an object
shifts because the angle of incidence also changes.
•Observer’s view:People with trichromatic vision may see color
differently due to age, brain judgment, and mood. Color blindness is also
a leading cause of observer metamerism. An observer may be unable to
distinguish between two shades and view them as similar colors.
•Combination of dyes or pigments on the object:
Dyes and pigments color textiles, plastics, rubber, automotive parts,
paints, and more. Different dye types vary in reflectance.
Color constancy:
•Color constancy is the tendency of the human color system that
ensures the color perception of objects is relatively constant under
varying illumination conditions.
•It means we observe the same object colors for different light
conditions.

Fig: Even though both A and B are the same gray color, A appears
darker than B because of shadow from the cylinder which
changes illumination on B.
•Like for example, under a greenish light source, the color of the apple
looks relatively red even though the intensity of the green wavelength
is greater than other colors.

Color constancy:
•Color constancy refers to our ability to perceive colors as relatively
constant over varying illuminations (i.e. light sources).
•For example, a red apple will still look red on a sunny day or cloudy
day – or in a grocery store or a home.
Chromatic adaptation:
•Chromatic adaptation is the ability of the human visual system to
discount the color of the illumination or light source and to
approximately preserve the appearance of an object.
•Chromatic adaptation can be observed by examining a white object
under different types of illumination, such as daylight and
incandescent.
•For example, a white piece of paper appears to be white when viewed
under sky light and tungsten light.

Figure: An illustration of the role that CATs play in the

reproduction of color images across different media.
•Chromatic adaptation is one of the mechanisms involved in color
constancy and is defined as the ability of human color perception to
adjust the retina/cortex sensitivity for changes in the illuminant color
system.
•Chromatic adaptation is closely related to the adjustment of cone
sensitivity that happens in our eyes when the illumination changes.
•Like our eyes adjust to see the objects as constant colors under
different day-light conditions like sunrise, mid-day, and sunset.

Fig: A Robust Illumination Estimate for Chromatic Adaptation in

Rendered Images
Color rendering:
•Color rendering is the ability of a light source to show surface colors
as they should be, usually in comparison with tungsten or daylight
source.
•Measured on the color rendering index (CRI) scale.
•A value of 0 means it is impossible to discern colors at all, and a
score of 100 means no color distortion.
Color rendering:
•Color rendering is the ability of a light source to accurately reveal the
color of an object.
•The most common measure of color rendering is the Color Rendering
Index (CRI).
•Sunlight shows the true colors of an object and, therefore, has a
perfect CRI of 100.
Example color rendering:
If we have bought clothing in a store only to find out that the color
looks different under natural light, the store’s lighting may be the
reason. More specifically, poor color rendering of the lighting.

•It’s the natural light standard against which all other light sources are
compared when calculating CRI.
•The color of clothing in the store, food on the kitchen counter, even
your skin, will look different depending on the light that’s
illuminating it.
Color rendering index (CRI):
•CRI 80 - 90 → Good color rendering, where most colors are
rendered well. Acceptable for most commercial uses.
•CRI Below 80 → lighting with a CRI below 80 would be considered
to have poor color rendering.

Attributes of color:
There are literally millions of colors. But fortunately, they can be
divided into just a few color families. Every color can be described in
terms of having three main attributes:
•Hue: Hue is identified as the color family or color name (such as
red, green, and purple). Hue is directly linked to the color's
wavelength.
SCALE:

Pigment Scale

SCALE LIGHT:

Light scale
•Saturation: Saturation, also called "chroma," is a measure of the
purity of a color or how sharp or dull the color appears.

•Brightness: Brightness, also called "luminance" or "value," is the

shade (darkness) or tint (lightness) of a color. Areas of an evenly
colored object in direct light have higher brightness than areas in
shadow.
 Warm Colors Cool Colors

 Cool colors include green, blue,

and purple, and variations of
 Warm colors include red, those three colors.
orange, and yellow, and
variations of those three colors.  Blue is the only primary color
within the cool spectrum.
 Red and yellow are both
primary colors, with orange  Greens take on some of the
falling in the middle. attributes of yellow and purple
takes on some of the attributes
 Warm colors appear closer to of red.
the observer.
 They are often more subdued
than warm colors.
 Cool colors appear farther from
the observer.
Color harmony:
•Color harmony is the concept in color theory that uses geometric
relationships to identify harmonious color combinations.
•These combinations are found on the color wheel, which places
primary, secondary, and tertiary colors in rainbow order.
Importance of color harmony:
•Our visual experiences need to have a logical structure in order for us
to understand them. Color harmony provides that structure.
•Color harmony is when colors are placed together and they’re
pleasing to the eye. It engages the viewer and it creates an inner sense
of order, a balance in the visual experience. When something is not
harmonious, it’s either boring or chaotic. When something looks
boring or chaotic, you’re not going to get your audience’s attention.
There are three color schemes that make color harmony;
•Analogous colors: Analogous colors are any three colors that are
side-by-side on a 12-part color wheel.
•Complementary colors: Complementary colors are any two colors
that are directly opposite of each other. Opposing colors create
maximum contrast and maximum stability.
•A color scheme based on nature: Nature provides a perfect
departure point for color harmony. In the image above, red yellow and
green is not normally a color combination many people will choose
but in nature, the colors look beautiful and harmonious.
Color context:
•Color context is how color behaves in relation to other colors in an
area.
•In example A, the two example swatches are the same color but
when put into different surrounding colors, they appear to be
different. In example B, the two example swatches are slightly
different in color but when put into different surrounding colors, they
appear to be more similar.
Thanks to all