HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

AND PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Academic Year: 1st Semester 2023
Class no./code: BIOL 111/ BCA
Class Schedule: MW 7:30 AM - 9:00 AM Lec.
MW 9:00 AM-12:00 NN Lab.
Venue: SB 2 (lec/lab)

Instructor: Janice C. Ganzon

Degree: Bachelor of Science in Biology, MVC
Email Address: [email protected]
Contact number: 09074879489
Consultation hours: lab time or appointment 1
NERVOUS SYSTEM 08

Content:
1. Functions of the nervous system
2. Division of the nervous system
3. Cells of the nervous system
4. Sensory functions
Nervous System Functions

1. Receiving sensory input

2. Integrating information
3. Controlling muscles and glands
4. Maintaining homeostasis
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity
Main Divisions of Nervous System
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
- All the nervous tissue outside the CNS

 Central nervous system (CNS)

- brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System
1. Sensory division (afferent)
• Conducts action potentials from sensory receptors to the CNS

2. Motor division (efferent)

• Conducts action potentials to effector organs
Main Divisions of Nervous System 2

Motor division
a. Somatic nervous system
• Transmits action potentials from the CNS to skeletal muscles.
b. Autonomic nervous system
• Transmits action potentials from the CNS to cardiac muscle,
smooth muscle, and glands
c. Enteric nervous system
• A special nervous system found only in the digestive tract.
Main Divisions of Nervous System 2

Autonomic nervous system

a. Sympathetic nervous system
- Networks of nerves that activates
or controls the “fight-or-flight”
responses.
Main Divisions of Nervous System 2

Autonomic nervous system

b. Parasympathetic nervous system
- Network of nerves that relaxes your
body after period of stress or danger.
- Control body function when at rest.
Peripheral Nervous System
Cells of the Nervous System
1. Neurons
• is a nerve cells that receive stimuli,
conduct action potentials, and transmit
signals to other neurons or effector
organs.
2. Glial cells
• supportive cells of the CNS and PNS,
meaning these cells do not conduct
action potentials.
• Retain the ability to divide than neurons.
Neurons
A neuron (nerve cell) has a:
• Cell body – which contains a single nucleus
• Dendrite – which is a cytoplasmic extension from
the cell body, that usually receives information from
other neurons and transmits the information to the
cell body
• Axon – which is a single long cell process that
leaves the cell body at the axon hillock and
conducts sensory signals to the CNS and motor
signals away from the CNS

Figure 8.3
Structural Types of Neurons
Multipolar neurons
- have many dendrites and a single axon.

Bipolar neurons
- have two processes: one dendrite and one axon.

Pseudo-unipolar neurons
- have a single process extending from the cell body
to the periphery, and the other extends to the CNS.
Types of Neurons

Figure 8.4
Types of Glial Cells in the CNS
1. Astrocytes
- serve as the major supporting cells
in the CNS.
- Astrocytes can stimulate or inhibit
the signaling activity of nearby
neurons and form the blood-brain
barrier.
2. Ependymal cells
- line the cavities in the brain that
contains cerebrospinal fluid.
Types of Glial Cells in the CNS
3. Microglial cells
- act in an immune function in the CNS by
removing bacteria and cell debris.

4. Oligodendrocytes
- provide myelin to neurons in the CNS.
Types of Glial Cells in the CNS
Types of Glial Cells in the PNS
1. Schwann cells
- Provide insulating material around
axon

2. Satellite cells
- are found around the cell bodies of
certain neurons of the PNS.
Myelin Sheaths
- are specialized layers that wrap around the axons of some neurons, those
neurons are termed, myelinated.
- Myelin is an excellent insulator that prevents almost all ion movement
across the cell membrane.
Organization of Nervous Tissue
- Nervous tissue exists as gray matter
and white matter.
• Gray matter
- consists of groups of neuron
cell bodies and their dendrites,
where there is very little
myelin sheaths.
• White matter
- consists of bundles of parallel
axons with their myelin
sheaths.
Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways
 Resting membrane potentials and action
potentials occur in neurons.
 Ions move across the cell membrane through
the ion channel.
 High concentration of potassium inside the
cell, and high concentration of sodium
outside the cell.
Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways
 Membrane channels include leak channels and gated channels.
 Leak channels are always open, whereas gated channels are
generally closed, but can be opened due to voltage or chemicals.
Sodium-Potassium Pump
 The sodium-potassium pump is required to maintain the greater
concentration of Na+ outside the cell membrane and K+ inside.
 It is estimated that the sodium-potassium pump consumes 25% of all
the ATP in a typical cell and 70% of the ATP in a neuron.
Neuron Communication
 Action potentials allow
conductivity along nerve or muscle
membrane.
 The channels responsible for the
action potential are voltage-gated
Na+ and K+ channels, which are
closed during rest (resting
membrane potential).
Action Potential 2

 This movement of Na+, which is called a local

current, causes the inside of the cell membrane
to become positive, a change called
depolarization.
 If depolarization is not strong enough, the Na+
channels close again, and the local potential
disappears without being conducted along the
nerve cell membrane.
 If depolarization is large enough, Na+ enters
the cell so that the local potential reaches a
threshold value.
 This threshold depolarization causes voltage-
gated Na+ channels to open, generally at the
axon hillock.
Action Potential 3

 The opening of these channels causes a massive, 600-fold increase in

membrane permeability to Na+.
 Voltage-gated K+ channels also begin to open.
 As more Na+ enters the cell, depolarization continues at a much faster
pace, causing a brief reversal of charge – the inside of the cell membrane
becomes positive relative to the outside of the cell membrane.
 The charge reversal causes Na+ channels to close and Na+ then stops
entering the cell.
 During this time, more K+ channels
are opening and K+ leaves the cell,
resulting in repolarization.
Action Potential 4

 At the end of repolarization, the

charge on the cell membrane briefly
becomes more negative than the
resting membrane potential; this
condition is called hyperpolarization
and occurs briefly.
 Action potentials occur in an all-or-
none fashion
 All-or-none refers to the fact that if
threshold is reached, an action
potential occurs; if the threshold is not
reached, no action potential occurs.
Unmyelinated and Myelinated Axon Action Potentials
 Action potentials are
conducted slowly in
unmyelinated axons and
more rapidly in
myelinated axons.

Figure 8.10
Unmyelinated and Myelinated Axon Action Potentials
 Action potentials on myelinated axons occur in a jumping pattern at the
nodes of Ranvier.
 This type of action potential conduction is called saltatory conduction.

Figure 8.11
Axon Conduction Speed

The speed of action potential conduction varies

widely, even among myelinated axons; it is based
on the diameter of axon fibers.
Synapse 1

 A neuronal synapse is a junction where the

axon of one neuron interacts with another
neuron.
 The end of the axon forms a presynaptic
terminal, and the membrane of the next
neuron forms the postsynaptic membrane, with
a synaptic cleft between the two membranes.
 Chemical substances called
neurotransmitters are stored in synaptic
vesicles in the presynaptic terminal.
Synapse 4

 If Na+ channels open, the postsynaptic

cell becomes depolarized, and an action
potential will result if threshold is
reached.
 If K+ or Cl− channels open, the inside of
the postsynaptic cell tends to become
more negative, or hyperpolarized, and
an action potential is inhibited from
occurring.
 There are many neurotransmitters, with
the best-known being acetylcholine and
norepinephrine.
Synapse 5

 An enzyme called acetylcholinesterase

breaks down the acetylcholine.
 Norepinephrine is either actively
transported back into the presynaptic
terminal or broken down by enzymes.
Neuronal Pathways
 Converging pathway
- two or more neurons synapse
with the same postsynaptic
neuron.
 Diverging pathway
- The axon from one neuron
divides and synapses with
more than one other
postsynaptic neuron.
Reflex
 A reflex is an involuntary reaction in response to a
stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to
the CNS.
 Reflexes allow a person to react to stimuli more
quickly than is possible if conscious thought is
involved.
 Most reflexes occur in the spinal cord or brainstem
rather than in the higher brain centers.
 A reflex arc is the neuronal pathway by which a
reflex occurs and has five basic components.
Reflex Arc Components
1. A sensory receptor
2. A sensory neuron
3. Interneurons, which are neurons located between and
communicating with two other neurons
4. A motor neuron
5. An effector organ (muscles or glands).
Note: The simplest reflex arcs do not involve interneurons.
Knee-Jerk Reflex or Stretch Reflex

Figure 8.17
Withdrawal Reflex

Figure 8.18
Spinal Nerves
 All the spinal nerves contain axons of both sensory and somatic motor
neurons and thus are called mixed nerves.
 arise along the spinal cord from the union of the dorsal roots and
ventral roots.
 A dermatome is the area of skin supplied with sensory innervation by
a pair of spinal nerves.
Plexuses Spinal Nerves
1. Cervical plexus
2. Brachial plexus,
3. Lumbosacral plexus
Plexuses Spinal Nerves
1. Cervical plexus
2. Brachial plexus,
3. Lumbosacral plexus
Major Region of the Brain
1. Brainstem
2. Cerebellum
3. Diencephalon
4. Cerebrum
Brainstem
- control of heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing.
Cerebellum
- Cerebellar penduncles provide route for communication
between cerebellum and other parts of the CNS.
- Motor function.
Diencephalon
 Thalamus
- Influenced mood
 Epithalamus
- Influenced the onset of puberty
 Hypothalamus
- control body temperature,
hunger, and thirst.
- Sensation, pleasure, and
emotional response
Cerebrum
 Frontal lobe
- Control voluntary motor
function, motivation, aggression,
mood, and olfactory.

 Parietal lobe
- principal center for receiving
and consciously perceiving
most sensory information, such
as touch, pain, temperature, and
balance.
Cerebrum
 Occipital lobe
- functions in receiving and perceiving
visual input and is not distinctly
separate from the other lobes.
 Temporal lobe
- involved in olfactory (smell) and
auditory (hearing) sensations and plays
an important role in memory.
 Insula
- Deep within the lateral fissure
- Deep within the lateral fissure
Sensory Functions

 Ascending (sensory) tract

- transmit information via action potentials
from the periphery to various parts of the
brain.
Ascending Tracts
Sensory Functions
Sensory Functions

 Descending (sensory) tract

- based on where they originate in the brain
and where they terminate in the spinal cord
or the brainstem.
Descending Tract
Other Brain Functions
 Speech
- In the left cerebral cortex
- Aphasia (damage to speech region of
the brain)
Other Brain Functions
 Brain waves and consciousness
- Electroencephalogram (EEG)
– detect brainwaves / electrical activity.
 Alpha waves (normal)
 Beta waves (Intense mental activity)
 Theta waves (frustrated or brain disorder)
 Delta waves (deep sleep)
Other Brain Functions
 Memory
 Working memory
- Only last for few seconds
 Short term memory
- Minutes to days
 Long term memory
- Becoming permanent
- Declarative memory (facts, names, dates, places)
- Procedural memory (reflexive memory)
Meninges, Ventricles, and Cerebrospinal Fluid
Meninges
- surround and protect the brain and spinal
cord
- Three connective tissue meninges cover the
CNS:
1. Dura mater
2. Arachnoid mater
3. Pia mater
Meninges, Ventricles, and Cerebrospinal Fluid
Ventricles
- The fluid-filled cavities in the CNS
- The brain and spinal cord contain fluid-
filled cavities:
1. lateral ventricles in the cerebral
hemispheres
2. third ventricle in the diencephalon
3. cerebral aqueduct in the midbrain
4. fourth ventricle at the base of the
cerebellum
5. central canal in the spinal cord.
Meninges, Ventricles, and Cerebrospinal Fluid
Cerebrospinal Fluid
- bathes the brain and spinal cord,
providing a protective cushion
around the CNS.
Cranial Nerves
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves:
• 3 with only sensory function (S)
• 4 with only somatic motor function (M),
• 1 with somatic motor (M) and sensory
function (S),
• 1 with somatic motor and parasympathetic
(P) function
• 3 with all three functions.
Four of the cranial nerves have parasympathetic
function.
Cranial Nerves
Autonomic Nervous System
- The autonomic nervous system contains
preganglionic and postganglionic
neurons.
- The autonomic nervous system has
sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions.
Autonomic Nervous System
Functions of the Autonomic
Nervous System
1. The sympathetic division
prepares a person for action by
increasing heart rate, blood
pressure, respiration, and release
of glucose for energy.
2. The parasympathetic division is
involved in involuntary activities
at rest, such as the digestion of
food, defecation, and urination.
Autonomic Nervous System