UNIT 4: THE ART OF

COMMUNICATION
2020_PHC528

B.M. Hlalele
E. Tshobeka
Learning outcomes
After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
• Identify the main functions of communication
• Describe the communication process and distinguish between formal and informal
communication
• Contrast downward, upward and lateral communication and provide examples of each
• Contrast oral, written and nonverbal communication
• Analyse the advantages and challenges of electronic communication
• Show how channel richness underlies the choice of communication channel
• Differentiate between automatic and controlled processing of persuasive messages
• Identify common barriers to effective communication
• Show how to overcome the potential problems in cross-cultural communication

CHAPTER 12: COMMUNICATION 2

Key topics
1. Functions of communication
2. The communication process
3. Direction of communication
4. Interpersonal communication
5. Organisational communication
6. Choice of communication channel
7. Persuasive communications
8. Barriers to effective communication
9. Global implications
10. Summary and implications for managers

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Functions of communication
Communication: The transfer of understanding and meaning.

• Communication acts to control member behaviour

• It fosters motivation by clarifying to employees what they must do, how
well they are doing it and how they can improve
• Communication provides for the emotional expression of feelings and
fulfilment of social needs
• Communication also facilitates decision making by providing the
information individuals and groups need to make decisions by transmitting
the data needed to identify and evaluate choices

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The communication process
Communication process: The steps between a source and a receiver that result in the transfer of
understanding and meaning.

Formal channels: Communication channels established by an organisation to transmit messages

related to the professional activities of members.

Informal channels: Communication channels that are created spontaneously and that emerge as
responses to individual choices.

The communication process

Figure 12.1 p 409

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Direction of communication
Downward communication
• Communication that flows from one level of a group or organisation to a lower level
• Managers should explain the reasons why a decision was made
• Downward communication is one-way in nature
Upward communication
• Communication that flows to a higher level in the group or organisation
• Is used to relay feedback to higher-ups
Lateral communication
• Communication that takes place among members of the same work group, members
of work groups at the same level, managers at the same level, or any other
horizontal communication

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 Interpersonal communication
Oral communication
• Speeches, formal one-on-one and group discussions, and the informal rumour mill or
grapevine
• Advantages – speed and feedback
• Disadvantage – distortion of message
Written communication
• Memos, letters, faxes, email, instant messages, organisational periodicals, notices on
bulletin boards
• Advantages – tangible and verifiable, logical and clear
• Disadvantages – time-consuming, lacks feedback mechanism
Nonverbal communication
• Body movements, intonations, emphasis on words, facial expressions and physical distance
• Conveys extent of our interest and how much we like a person, as well as the perceived
status between sender and receiver

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 Organisational communication
Formal small-group networks
Small-group networks and effective criteria Three common small group networks

Table 12.3 p 414 Figure 12.2 p 414

• Chain – rigid adherence to chain of command
• Wheel – relies on a central figure to act as the conduit for the group’s
communication (usually found in a team with a strong leader)
• All-channel – permits all group members to communicate actively with one
another (usually found in self-managed teams where all group members can
contribute and no person takes on a leadership role)

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 Organisational communication
The grapevine

Grapevine: An organisation’s informal communication

network.
• Rumours and gossip transmitted through the grapevine are informal, but still an
important source of information
• 75% of employees hear news here first
• Grapevine or word-of-mouth communication has important effects on whether or not job
applicants join an organisation
• Rumours emerge as a response to important situations when there is ambiguity and
under conditions that arouse anxiety
• It is worth understanding the grapevine, as it gives managers a feel for morale, helps
identify issues and taps into employee anxieties
• Negative effects of rumours can be minimised by providing information and
explanations to employees, not shooting the messenger and maintaining open
communication channels
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 Organisational communication
Electronic communications
Email
• Can be quickly written, edited and stored
• Emails can be distributed to one or a thousand people at the click of a mouse
• Costs of email are significantly lower than printing, duplicating and distributing a
comparable letter or brochure
• Drawbacks include:
• Risk of misinterpreting the message
• Not ideal for communicating negative messages
• Time-consuming in nature
• Limited expression of emotions
• Privacy concerns

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 Organisational communication
Electronic communications
Instant messaging and text messaging (IM and TM)
• TM is sent as SMS and is the preferred channel for marketers
• IM such as Mxit and WhatsApp are popular
• IM and TM won’t replace email, but are preferable for shorter communications
• IM and TM can be intrusive and distracting, making it hard to concentrate and stay
focused
• Security of IM and TM is also a concern for many organisations, as they are prone to
interception
• IM and TM tend to be informal, whereas business email is more formal
• Jargon and slang should be reserved for IM and TM only, as it may be perceived as
unprofessional in other contexts

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 Organisational communication
Electronic communications

Social networking
• Facebook and LinkedIn are highly popular platforms used for personal and business
purposes
• Many companies communicate with their customers via Facebook
• LinkedIn and Facebook profiles of prospective job applicants are also viewed
Blog (web log): A website where entries are written, and
generally displayed in reverse chronological order, about news,
events and personal views.
Twitter: A free blogging and networking service where users
send and read messages known as tweets of no more than 140
characters.
Video conferencing
• Allows employees to have real-time meetings with people in different locations at low
cost
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 Organisational communication
Managing information

Information overload: A condition in which information

inflow exceeds an individual’s processing capability.
• The Intel experiment showed that connecting to technology less frequently might
prevent information overload and allow better focus on actual work
• Negative impacts of being “always online” can spill into employees’ personal lives as
well
• Information security is a highly significant concern for nearly all organisations
• Social media is one of the top three concerns for companies
• Challenges include information leakage, social account hijacking and non-compliance
with regulatory requirements
• Many companies therefore monitor their employees’ internet and email activity

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Choice of communication channel

Channel richness: The amount of information that can be

transmitted during a communication episode.
Information richness and communication channels

Figure 12.3 p 421

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 Persuasive communications

Automated processing: A relatively superficial consideration

of evidence and information making use of heuristics.
Controlled processing: A detailed consideration of evidence
and information relying on facts, figures and logic.
• One of the best predictors of whether people will react using either controlled or
automated processing is their level of interest in the persuasive message
• People who are well-informed and have prior knowledge about a subject are also
more likely to use controlled processing strategies
• A person whose personality shows high need for cognition is more likely to use
controlled processing strategies, where people with low need for cognition will use
intuition and emotion (automatic processing) to evaluate a persuasive message
• The characteristics of the persuasive message are important; the persuader needs to
match the persuasive message to the type of processing the audience is likely to use

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 Barriers to effective communication

Filtering: A sender’s manipulation of information so that it will be seen more

favourably by the receiver,
• Selective perception – receivers in the communication process selectively see and hear based on their needs,
motivations, experience, background and other personal characteristics
• Information overload – when the information exceeds the processing capacity of the receiver
• Emotions – same message can be interpreted differently depending on the receiver’s mood
• Language – words mean different things to different people, our use of language is not uniform
• Silence – withholding communication is common and problematic, as important information about ongoing
operational problems or issues of discrimination and harassment cannot be received and acted upon

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 Barriers to effective communication

Communication apprehension: Undue tension and anxiety

about oral communication, written communication or both.
• Outright misrepresentation of information (also known as lying) is a serious barrier to
effective communication
• People have different definitions of what constitutes lying
• Research shows that people lie very often!
• Lying is also very difficult to detect

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 Global implications
Cultural barriers

Researchers have identified several problems related to language difficulties in cross-

cultural communications:
• Semantics – different words mean different things to different people, especially
those from different cultures
• Word connotations – words imply different things in different languages
• Tone difference – in some cultures language is formal, in others it is informal. Tone
differences might change depending on the context and culture; using a personal,
informal style when a formal style is expected can be embarrassing
• Differences in tolerance for conflict and methods for resolving conflicts – people
from individualist cultures tend to be more comfortable with direct conflicts and
overtly making the source of the disagreement known; collectivists acknowledge
conflict only implicitly and avoid emotionally charged disputes

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 Global implications
Cultural context

High-context cultures: Cultures that rely heavily on

nonverbal and situational cues in communication.
Low context cultures: Cultures that rely heavily on words to
convey meaning in communication.
To reduce misinterpretations, the following rules can be helpful:
• Assume difference until similarity is proven – one is less likely to err this way
• Emphasise description rather than interpretation or evaluation – interpreting what
someone has said or done relies on your own culture and background, delay
judgement until you have had time to consider differing perspectives
• Practice empathy – put yourself in the recipient’s shoes and consider his/her values,
experiences and frames of reference
• Treat your interpretations as a working hypothesis – continuously test your
interpretations against new information

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Summary and implications for managers

• The less distortion, the more employees will receive goals, feedback and other
management messages as intended
• Extensive use of vertical, lateral and informal channels also increases communication
flow, reduces uncertainty and improves group performance and satisfaction
• Perfect communication is unattainable, but a positive relationship exists between
effect communication and worker productivity
• Whatever the sender’s expectations, the message as decoded in the receiver’s mind
represents his or her reality, which will determine performance, satisfaction and
motivation
• The potential for misunderstanding in electronic communication is great
• Communication strategies should be tailored to the intended audience
• Keep communication barriers, such as gender and culture, in mind

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Thank you
Hlalele & Tshobeka