Faculty of Engineering, Technology, Applied Design and Fine Art

Department of Mechanical Engineering

BME3201 Production Engineering

Lecture 2-4: Fundamentals of Machining

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 Lecture Outline
 Basic machining processes used in chip formation
 Shop Formulas for Turning, Milling, Drilling, and Broaching
(English Units)
 Mechanics of Cutting
 Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation
 Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
 Tool life: Wear and Failure
 Surface Finish and Integrity
 Machinability

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 Basic machining processes used in chip formation

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 Shop Formulas for Turning, Milling, Drilling, and
Broaching (English Units)

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 Mechanics of Cutting
Factors Influencing Machining Operations
Parameter Influence and interrelationship
Cutting speed, Forces, power, temperature rise, tool life, type of chip, surface finish, and
depth of cut, feed, integrity
cutting fluids

Tool angles As above; influence on chip flow direction; resistance to tool wear and
chipping
Continuous chip Good surface finish; steady cutting forces; undesirable, especially in modern
machine tools
Built-up edge chip Poor surface finish and integrity; if thin and stable, edge can protect tool
surfaces
Discontinuous chip Desirable for ease of chip disposal; fluctuating cutting forces; can affect
surface finish and cause vibration and chatter
Temperature rise Influences tool life, particularly crater wear and dimensional accuracy of
workpiece; may cause thermal damage to workpiece surface
Tool wear Influences surface finish and integrity, dimensional accuracy, temperature
rise, and forces and power
Machinability Related to tool life, surface finish, forces and power, and type of chip
produced
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 Mechanics of Cutting
 Merchant model is known as orthogonal cutting.
 An actual machining process is three-dimensional, the orthogonal model has
only two dimensions that play active roles in the analysis.

(b)
(a)
Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process and (b) how it reduces to
two dimensions in the side view
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 Mechanics of Cutting
 Orthogonal cutting uses a wedge-shaped tool in which the cutting edge is
perpendicular to the direction of cutting speed.
 When the tool is forced into the material, the chip is formed by shear
deformation along a plane called the shear plane, which is oriented at an
angle with the surface of the work.
 Resulting in separation of the chip from the parent material.
 The tool in orthogonal cutting has only two elements of geometry: (1) rake
angle and (2) clearance angle.
 The rake angle α determines the direction that the chip flows as it is formed
from the work part; and
 The clearance angle provides a small clearance between the tool flank and
the newly generated work surface.

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 Mechanics of Cutting
Thickness ratio; Rake angle, and Shear plane angle

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 Mechanics of Cutting
Shear strain

Note: Chip formation depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each
other
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 Mechanics of Cutting
Velocities in the Cutting Zone
 Since ⇒ (velocity of chip) < V (cutting
speed)
 Since mass continuity is maintained,
V sin 
Vt0  Vc tc or Vc  Vr  Vc 
cos   
 From Velocity diagram, obtain
equations from trigonometric
relationships (Vs velocity at shearing
plane):
V Vs Vc
 
cos    cos  sin 
 Note also that
t0 Vc
r 
tc V
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 Mechanics of Cutting
Example

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 Mechanics of Cutting
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
 Types of metal chips commonly observed in practice (orthogonal metal cutting)
 There are 4 main types:

(a) Continuous chip (with narrow, straight, primary shear zone)

(b) Continuous chip with secondary shear zone at the tool-chip interface
(c) Built-up edge, BUE chip
(d) Serrated or segmented or non-homogenous chip
(e) Discontinuous chip
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 Mechanics of Cutting
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
All Chips

 Chip has two surfaces:

 Surface in contact with rake face

o Shiny and polished

o Caused by rubbing of the chip on the tool surface

 Outer surface from the original surface of the workpiece

o Jagged, rough appearance

o Caused by shearing mechanism

o Note, this surface remains exposed to the environment, and does not come
into contact with any other surface
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 Mechanics of Cutting
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
Continuous Chips
 Formed with ductile materials machined at high cutting
speeds and/or high rake angles
 Deformation takes place along a narrow shear zone
called the (primary shear zone)
 Continuous chips may develop a secondary shear zone
due to high friction at the tool–chip interface
o This zone becomes thicker as friction increases
 Continuous chips may also occur with wide primary shear
zone with curved boundaries
 Note, lower boundary of deformation zone drops below
machined surface ⇒ distortion in workpiece, poor finish.
o Occurs: machining soft metals at low speeds, low
rake angles
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 Mechanics of Cutting
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
Built-up Edge (BUE) Chips
 Consists of layers of material from the workpiece that are deposited on the tool
tip
 As it grows larger, the BUE becomes unstable and eventually breaks apart
 BUE: partly removed by tool, partly deposited on workpiece
 BUE can be reduced by: BUE: turning
1) Increase the cutting speeds
2) Decrease the depth of cut
3) Increase the rake angle
4) Use a sharp tool BUE: milling

5) Use an effective cutting fluid

6) Use cutting tool with lower
chemical affinity for workpiece
material
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 Mechanics of Cutting
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
Serrated Chips
 Also called segmented or nonhomogeneous chips
 They are semicontinuous chips with
o large zones of low shear strain and
o small zones of high shear strain (shear
localization)
 Example: metals with low thermal conductivity and
strength that decreases sharply with temperature, i.e.
thermal softening (e.g. titanium)
 Chips have a sawtooth-like appearance
o Note, do not confuse this with dimension d

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 Mechanics of Cutting
Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
Discontinuous Chips
 Consist of segments that are attached firmly or loosely to each other
 Form under the following conditions:
1. Brittle workpiece materials
2. Materials with hard inclusions and impurities
3. Very low or very high cutting speeds
4. Large depths of cut
5. Low rake angles
6. Lack of an effective cutting fluid
7. Low stiffness of the machine tool (⇒ vibration, chatter)

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 Mechanics of Cutting
Chip Curl
 Chips will develop a curvature (chip curl) as they leave the workpiece surface
 Factors affecting the chip curl conditions are:
1. Distribution of stresses in the primary and secondary shear zones.
2. Thermal effects.
3. Work-hardening characteristics of the workpiece material
4. Geometry of the cutting tool
5. Cutting fluids
Note, as cutting depth ↓, chip radius ↓ (i.e. curlier)

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 Mechanics of Cutting

Chip Breakers
 Long, continuous chips are
undesirable since:
o become entangled and
greatly interfere with
machining
o potential safety hazard
 chip-breaker: breaks
chips intermittently
with cutting tools
 Traditionally are clamped to
rake face: bend and
break the chip Action of chip breaker clamped chip breaker
 Modern tools: built-in chip
breakers
 Ideal chip: “C” or “9” shape

Grooves in tools act as chip breakers

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 Mechanics of Cutting

Chip Breakers
Chips can also be broken by changing the tool geometry to control chip flow

Tightly curled chip Chips hits workpiece Continuous chip Chip hits tool
and breaks moving radially shank (body)
away from the and breaks off
workpiece

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 Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation
Forces in metal cutting

Forces acting on the chip in orthogonal cutting

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 Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation
Forces in metal cutting

Force diagram showing geometric relationships

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 Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation
Relationship between cutting force and thrust force and shear
strength of the work material

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 Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation
Relationship between cutting force and thrust force and shear
strength of the work material
 Shear strength

 Based on the assumption that the shear angle adjusts itself to minimize the
cutting force

 = friction angle, related to :

 = coefficient of –dynamic – friction
 usually: 0.5 – 2

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 Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
Cutting power

where = cutting power; = cutting force; and = cutting speed

Mechanical efficiency of the machine tool

where = gross power of the machine tool motor, Typical values of for machine tools are
around 90%

Unit power

where = materials removal rate

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 Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
Unit power (specific energy)

where = materials removal rate

Factor affecting unit power and specific energy are:

 Sharpness of the cutting tool
 Chip thickness (mm)
 Rake angle,
 Cutting speed
 Cutting fluid.

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 Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
Typical values of unit horsepower and specific energy for selected work materials
using sharp cutting tools and chip thickness before the cut = 0.25 mm.

When is in
mm

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 Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
Example

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 Temperature in cutting
 Temperature rise (due to heat lost in cutting ⇒ raising temp. in cutting zone)
its major adverse effects:
1. Lowers the strength, hardness, stiffness and wear resistance of the
cutting tool (i.e. alters tool shape)
2. Causes uneven dimensional changes (machined parts)
3. Induce thermal damage and metallurgical changes in the machined
surface (⇒ properties adversely affected)
 Sources of heat in machining:
1. Work done in shearing (primary shear zone)
2. Energy lost due to friction (tool-chip interface)
3. Heat generated due to tool rubbing on machined surface (especially dull
or worn tools)
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 Temperature in cutting
 Expression: mean temperature in orthogonal cutting:

0.000665Y f Vt0
T 3
c K
where,
 T: mean temperature in [K]
 : flow stress in [MPa]
 ρc: volumetric specific heat in [kJ/m3·K]
 K: thermal diffusivity (ratio of thermal conductivity to volumetric specific heat) in
[m2/s]
 Equation shows that T:
o increases with material strength, cutting speed (V), depth of cut (t0);
o decreases with ρc and K
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 Temperature in cutting
Mean temperature in turning on a lathe is given by

Tmean  V f a b

where,
 V : cutting speed
 f : feed of the tool
 Approximate values of the exponents a, b:
o Carbide tools: a = 0.2, b = 0.125
o High-speed steel tools: a = 0.5, b = 0.375
 Also note how this relation shows the increase in temperature with increased
cutting speed and feed

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 Temperature in cutting
Temperature Distribution
 Sources of heat generation are
concentrated in
o primary shear zone, and
o At tool–chip interface
o ⇒ v. large temp. gradients
in the cutting zone (right)
 Note max. temp is about halfway
up tool-chip interface (why?)

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 Temperature in cutting

Temperature distribution
 The temperature increases with cutting speed
 Chips can become red hot and create a safety hazard for the operator
 The chip carries away most (90%) of the heat generated during
machining (see right) and Rest carried by tool and workpiece
 Thus high machining speed (V ) ⇒
1. More energy lost in chips
2. Machining time decreases
(i.e. favorable machining economics)

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 Temperature in cutting
Techniques for Measuring Temperature
Temperatures and their distribution can be determined using
1. thermocouples (placed on tool or workpiece)
2. Electromotive force (thermal emf) at the tool-chip interface
3. Measuring infrared radiation (using a radiation pyrometer) from the cutting
zone (only measures surface temperatures)

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 Tool Life: Wear and Failure
Tool wear:
Modes by which a cutting tool can fail in during machining are:
1. Fracture failure. This mode of failure occurs when the cutting force at the
tool point becomes excessive, causing it to fail suddenly by brittle fracture.
2. Temperature failure. This failure occurs when the cutting temperature is too
high for the tool material, causing the material at the tool point to soften,
which leads to plastic deformation and loss of the sharp edge.
3. Gradual wear. Gradual wearing of the cutting edge causes loss of tool shape,
reduction in cutting efficiency, and acceleration of wearing as the tool
becomes heavily worn, and finally tool failure in a manner similar to a
temperature failure.
Note: Fracture and temperature failures result in premature loss of the cutting
tool
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 Tool Life: Wear and Failure
 Gradual wear occurs at two principal locations on a cutting tool: the top rake face
and the flank
 The two type of gradual are: crater wear and flank wear.

Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal locations and types of wear that occur.

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 Tool Life: Wear and Failure
 Crater wear, Fig. (a), consists of a cavity in the rake face of
the tool that forms and grows from the action of the chip
sliding against the surface.
 High stresses and temperatures characterize the tool–chip
contact interface, contributing to the wearing action.
 The crater can be measured either by its depth or by its
Fig. (a)
area.
 Flank wear, Fig. (b), occurs on the flank, or relief face, of
the tool;
 it results from rubbing between the newly generated work
surface and the flank face adjacent to the cutting edge.
Flank wear is measured by the width of the wear band,
FW. This wear band is sometimes called the flank wear
Fig. (b)
land.
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 Tool Life: Wear and Failure
The mechanisms that cause wear at the tool–chip and tool–work interfaces in
machining can be summarized as follows:
(a) Abrasion
 This is a mechanical wearing action caused by hard particles in the work
material gouging and removing small portions of the tool.
 This abrasive action occurs in both flank wear and crater wear; it is a significant
cause of flank wear.
(b) Adhesion
 When two metals are forced into contact under high pressure and
temperature, adhesion (welding) occurs between them.
 These conditions are present between the chip and the rake face of the tool.
 As the chip flows across the tool, small particles of the tool adhere to the chip
and are broken away from the surface, resulting in attrition of the surface.
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 Tool Life: Wear and Failure
(c) Diffusion
 This is a process in which an exchange of atoms takes place across a close
contact
 boundary between two materials.
 In the case of tool wear, diffusion occurs at the tool–chip boundary, causing
the tool surface to become depleted of the atoms responsible for its hardness.
As this process continues, the tool surface becomes more susceptible to
abrasion and adhesion.
 Diffusion is believed to be a principal mechanism of crater wear

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 Tool Life: Wear and Failure
(d) Chemical reactions.
 The high temperatures and clean surfaces at the tool–chip interface in
 machining at high speeds can result in chemical reactions, in particular
oxidation, on the rake face of the tool.
 The oxidized layer, being softer than the parent tool material, is sheared away,
exposing new material to sustain the reaction process.
(e) Plastic deformation.
 Another mechanism that contributes to tool wear is plastic deformation of the
cutting edge.
 The cutting forces acting on the cutting edge at high temperature cause the
edge to deform plastically, making it more vulnerable to abrasion of the tool
surface.
 Plastic deformation contributes mainly to flank wear.
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 Tool Life: Wear and Failure

Tool wear as a function of cutting time.

Flank wear (FW) is used here as the measure of tool wear.
Crater wear follows a similar growth curve.
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 Tool Life: Wear and Failure
Tool life

 Tool life is defined as the length of cutting time that the cutting tool can be used

Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear (FW) for three cutting speeds
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 Tool Life: Wear and Failure
The Taylor tool life equation:
 The Taylor tool life equation is defined as

where
 v = cutting speed, m/min;
 T = tool life, min;
 n and C are parameters whose values depend on feed, depth of cut, work
material, tooling (material, in particular), and the tool life criterion used.
 The value of n is relatively constant for tool material,
 whereas the value of C depends on tool material, work material, and cutting
conditions
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 Tool Life: Wear and Failure

Natural log–log plot of cutting speed vs. tool life

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 Tool Life: Wear and Failure
Tool life criteria in production
 Although flank wear is the tool life criterion, this criterion is not very practical
in a factory environment
 Because of the difficulties and time required to measure flank wear.
 Alternative tool life criteria that are more convenient to use in production
operations include the following, some of which are admittedly subjective:
(1) Complete failure of the cutting edge, although this criterion has
disadvantages;
(2) Visual inspection of flank wear (or crater wear) by the machine operator
without a toolmaker’s microscope;
(3) Changes in the sound emitting from the operation, as judged by the operator;
(4) Degradation of the surface finish on the work;

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 Tool Life: Wear and Failure
Tool life criteria in production
(6) Increased power consumption in the operation, as measured by a wattmeter
connected to the machine tool;
(7) Workpiece count, in which the operator is instructed to change the tool after a
certain specified number of parts have been machined; and
(8) Cumulative cutting time, which is similar to the previous workpiece count,
except that the length of time the tool has been cutting is monitored.

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 Tool Life: Wear and Failure
Example

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 Tool Life: Wear and Failure
Tool-condition Monitoring

 Direct method for observing the condition of a cutting tool involves optical
measurements of wear
1. e.g. periodic observation of changes in tool using microscope
2. e.g. programming tool to touch a sensor after every machining cycle (to
detect broken tools)
 Indirect methods of observing tool conditions involve the correlation of the tool
condition with certain parameters
1. Parameters include forces, power, temp. rise, workpiece surface finish,
vibration, chatter
2. e.g. transducers which correlate acoustic emissions (from stress waves in
cutting) to tool wear and chipping
3. e.g. transducers which continually monitor torque and forces during cutting,
plus measure and compensate for tool wear
4. e.g. sensors which measure temperature during machining

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 Surface Finish and Integrity
Surface finish:
 this influences the dimensional accuracy of machined parts, as well as
properties and performance in service
 this refers to geometric features of a surface
Surface integrity:
 this refers to material properties
 e.g. fatigue life, corrosion resistance
 this is greatly affected by the nature of the surface produced
The following discussion pertains to showing the different factors that affect
surface finish and surface integrity

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 Surface Finish and Integrity
 The built-up edge has the greatest influence on surface finish (due to large
effect on tool-tip surface); see below
 Damage shown below is due to BUE
 It appears as “scuffing” (i.e. scratching) marks
 In normal machining: marks would appear as straight grooves
 Note: diamond, ceramic tools have best surface finish (no BUE)

Machined surfaces
produced on steel
(highly magnified)
a) turned surface
b) surface produced
by shaping

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 Surface Finish and Integrity
 A dull tool has a large R along its edges (like dull pencil) ↓
 although tool in orthogonal cutting has +ve rake angle (),
 for small depths of cut: can become –ve
 ⇒ tool overrides workpiece (i.e. no cutting) and burnishes surface (i.e. rubs on
it), and no chips are produced
 ⇒ workpiece temp. ↑ and this causes residual stresses
 ⇒ surface damage: tearing, cracking
 this occurs when tip radius of tool
is large in relation to depth of cut
 solution is to choose:
depth of cut > tip radius

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 Surface Finish and Integrity
 In a turning operation, the tool leaves a spiral profile (feed marks) on the
machined surface as it moves across the workpiece (see below, slide 8):
 as feed (f ) ↑ + tool nose (R) ↓⇒ marks become more distinct
 typical surface roughness is expressed as

f2
Rt 
8R
 where, : roughness height
 Feed marks are important to
consider in finish machining
(not rough machining)

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 Surface Finish and Integrity
Vibration and chatter
 Adversely affects workpiece surface finish
 Tool vibration ⇒ variations in cutting dimensions
 Chatter ⇒ chipping, premature failure in brittle tools (e.g. ceramics, diamond)
Factors influencing surface integrity (adversely) are:
 Temperatures generated during processing
 Surface residual stresses
 Severe plastic deformation and strain hardening of the machined surfaces,
tearing and cracking
 Note, each of these factors can be controlled by carefully choosing and
maintaining cutting tools

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 Surface Finish and Integrity
Vibration and chatter
 Adversely affects workpiece surface finish
 Tool vibration ⇒ variations in cutting dimensions
 Chatter ⇒ chipping, premature failure in brittle tools (e.g. ceramics, diamond)
Factors influencing surface integrity (adversely) are:
1. Temperatures generated during processing
2. Surface residual stresses
3. Severe plastic deformation and strain hardening of the machined surfaces,
tearing and cracking
 Note, each of these factors can be controlled by carefully choosing and
maintaining cutting tools

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 Surface Finish and Integrity
Rough machining vs. Finish machining
Rough machining
 focus: removing a large amount of material at a high rate
 surface finish is not emphasized since it will be improved during finish
machining
Finish machining
 focus is on the surface finish to be produced
 note, it is important that workpiece has developed no subsurface-damage
due to rough machining

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 Machinability
 Machinability is defined in terms of:
1. Surface finish and surface integrity of machined part
2. Tool life
3. Force and power required
4. The level of difficulty in chip control
 Good machinability indicates
1. good surface finish and surface integrity
2. a long tool life
3. and low force and power requirements
4. Note, continuous chips should be avoided (slide 22) for good
machinability

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 Machinability
Read more about the following:
1. Machinability ratings (indexes)
2. Machinability of different elements

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 I Thank You for Your
Kind Attention

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