ME-242 MECHANICAL MEASUREMENT

AND METROLOGY

MEASUREMENT OF FORCE

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 Force:
 Force is derived and defined as Force is a quantity capable of
changing the size, shape, or motion of an object. It is a vector
quantity and, as such, it has both direction and magnitude. In the SI
system, the magnitude of a force is measured in units called Newton,
and in pounds in the British/American system.
 If a body is in motion, the energy of that motion can be quantified as
the momentum of the object, the product of its mass and its velocity.
If a body is free to move, the action of a force will change the
velocity of the body.

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 There are four basic forces in nature:
 gravitational,
 magnetic,
 strong nuclear, and
 weak nuclear forces.
 The weakest of the four is the gravitational force.
 It is also the easiest to observe, because it acts on all matter and it is
always attractive, while having an infinite range.
 Its attraction decreases with distance, but is always measurable.
 Therefore, positional "equilibrium" of a body can only be achieved
when gravitational pull is balanced by another force, such as the upward
force exerted on our feet by the earth's surface.

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 Measuring Method
1. Direct Comparison
2. Indirect Comparison

Direct Method
Involves a direct comparison with a known gravitational force
on a standard mass say by a balance.
 Types:

1. Equal arm balance

2. Analytical balance
3. Unequal arm balance
4. Multiple lever system
5. Pendulum scale

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 Equal arm balance
 Direct comparison of an unknown force with the gravitational force can be
explained with the help of an analytical balance.
 The direction of force is parallel to that of the gravitational force, and hence only its
magnitude needs to be determined.
 The constructional details of an analytical balance is as shown in Fig.

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 Equal arm balance
 The balance arm rotates about the point
“O” and two forces W1 and W2 are
applied at the ends of the arm.
 W1 is an unknown force and W2 is the
known force due to a standard mass.
 Point G is the centre of gravity of the
balance arm, and WB is the weight of the
balance arm and the pointer acting at G.
 The figure show the balance is
unbalanced position when the force W1
and W2 are unequal. This unbalance is
indicated by the angle θ which the pointer
makes with the vertical.
 In the balanced position W1 = W2, and
hence θ is zero.
 Therefore, the weight of the balance arm 6
and the pointer do not influence the
measurements.
 Equal arm balance
 The sensitivity S of the balance is defined as the angular deflection per unit of unbalance
is between the two weight W1 and W2 and is given by

 where, ΔW is the difference between W1 and W2. The sensitivity S can be calculated by
writing the moment equation at equilibrium as follows :
 W1 (L cos θ - dB sin θ) = W2 (L cosθ + dB sinθ) + WB dG sin θ

o Finally we have

o The sensitivity depends on the construction parameters of the

balance arm and is independent of the weights being
compared.
o The sensitivity can be improved by decreasing both d G and
WB and increasing L. A compromise however, is to be struck
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between the sensitivity and stability of the balance.
 Equal arm balance
It uses at Jeweler Shop and all normal places. The basic Principal is

m .g . l
1 1
 m 2
.g .l 2
similarly ,
W 1
W l 2 2
/l
1

Since , l  l1 2

So
W 1
W 2

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 Analytical balance
This device operates on the principle of moment comparison. The
moment produced by the unknown weight or Force is compared with
that Produced by a known value.

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 Multiple Lever Balance (Platform Balance) :
This system is used to measure large weight. With such system large
weights W may be measured in terms of smaller weights Wp (Poise
weight) & W s (Smaller weight)

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 Multiple Lever Balance (Platform Balance) :
 An equal and unequal arm balances are not suited for measurement of large
weights.
 When measurement of large weights are involved, multiple lever systems shown in
Fig. are used
 The system is provided with an adjustable counterpoise which is used to get an
initial balance.
 Before the unknown load W is applied to the platform, the poise weight Wp is set at
zero of the beam scale and counter piece is adjusted to obtain Initial zero balance.
 In order to simplify the analysis it is
assumed that the weight W can be
replaced by two arbitrary weights W1 and
W2.
 Also it is assumed that the poise weight
Wp is at zero and when the unknown
weight W is applied it is entirely
balanced by the weight, WS in the pan.

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 PENDULUM FORCE MEASURING SYSTEM
 Pendulum Mechanism is a force
measuring device of the multiple-
lever type, with the fixed-length
levers replaced by ribbon or tape-
connection sectors.
 The input is either a direct force or a
force proportional to weight and
transmitted from a suitable platform,
is applied to the load rod.
 As load is applied, sector rotates
about points A, as shown, moving
the counter weights upwards.
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 INDIRECT METHODS
It involves the measurement of effect of force on a body , such as
acceleration of a body of known mass subjected to force.
 Types:

1.Electromagnetic balance
2.Loadcells (i)Hydraulic load cell
(ii)Pneumatic load cell
4.Elastic loaded members (i)coil springs
(ii)proven rings
5.Bourdon tube
6.Bellows
7.Shear type load cell
8.Electronic weighing system 13
 INDIRECT METHOD FORCE MEASUREMENT BY
HYDRAULIC LOAD CELL

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 Basic Principle of Hydraulic Load cell
 When a force is applied on a liquid medium contained in a confined space, the
pressure of the liquid increases.
 This increase in pressure of the liquid is proportional to the applied force.
 Hence a measure of the increase in pressure of the liquid becomes a measure
of the applied force when calibrated.
 Operation of Hydraulic Load Cell
 The force to be measured is applied to the piston.
 The applied force moves the piston downwards and deflects the diaphragm
and this deflection of the diaphragm increases the pressure in the liquid
medium (oil).
 This increase in pressure of the liquid medium is proportional to the applied
force.

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 Operation of Hydraulic Load Cell
 The increase in pressure is measured by the pressure gauge which
is connected to the liquid medium.
 The pressure is calibrated in force units and hence the indication in
the pressure gauge becomes a measure of force applied on the
piston.

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 INDIRECT METHOD FORCE MEASUREMENT BY
PNEUMATIC LOAD CELL

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 Operation of Pneumatic Load Cell
 The force to be measured is applied to the top side of the diaphragm. Due
to this force, the diaphragm deflects and causes the flapper to shut-off the
nozzle opening.
 Now an air supply is provided at the bottom of the diaphragm.
 As the flapper closes the nozzle opening, a back pressure results
underneath the diagram applied force when calibrated.
 This back pressure acts on the diaphragm producing an upward force.
 Air pressure is regulated until the diaphragm returns to the pre-loaded
position which is indicated by air which comes out of the nozzle.
 At this stage, the corresponding pressure indicated by the pressure gauge
becomes a measure of the applied force when calibrated.

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 Introduction to Torque Measurement
 Torque: Force that causes twisting or turning moment.

E.g. the force generated by an internal-combustion engine to turn a

vehicle's drive or shaft.
 Torque measuring devices are called as dynamometers.

 The torque may be computed by measuring the force ‘F’ at a

known radius ‘r’, given by the formula

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 Introduction to Torque Measurement
 Any system involving torque transmission through a shaft of the
transmitted torque can be measured by cradling (concept of
mounting sources or sinks (power absorber) in bearings is called
cradling) then measuring the reaction force F and the arm length
L.

 Torque is then calculated as F x L

 Pendulum scales are commonly used for measuring the reaction

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force.
 Introduction to Torque Measurement
 Torque measurement is usually associated with determination of
mechanical power, either power required to operate a machine or
to find out the power developed by the machine.
2NT
power  kw
60 *1000

Where,

N = Speed in rpm.

T =Torque developed due to load “W”, (N-m)

R = Radius from the center to the point of application of force (m)

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