DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

SCSA1301
Dr. J Cruz Antony
Dept. of CSE
SIST

1
 SQL
Structured Query Language SQL is a computer
language used to interact with relational database
SQL is a tool for organizing, managing, and
retrieving archived data from a computer database
Originally, it was named Structured English Query
Language (SEQUEL) by IBM later it was renamed
“SQL”
SQL follows ANSI standard for accessing and
manipulating databases

2
 Structured Query Languages
Data Definition Language(DDL) – Consists of
commands which are used to define the database
Data Manipulation Language(DML) – Consists of
commands which are used to manipulate the data
present in the database
Data Control Language(DCL) – Consists of
commands which deal with the user permissions and
controls of the database system
Transaction Control Language(TCL) – Consist of
commands which deal with the transaction of the
database
3
 Data Definition Language (DDL)
SQL commands
CREATE - This command is used to create the
database or its objects i.e. Tables
DROP - This command is used to delete tables from
the database
TRUNCATE - This is used to remove all records from
a table, including all spaces allocated for the records
are removed
ALTER - This is used to alter the structure of the
database
RENAME - This is used to rename a table existing in
4 the database
 DDL - CREATE
CREATE TABLE
 This statement is used to create a table
Syntax
 CREATE TABLE TableName ( Column1 datatype, Column2
datatype, Column3 datatype, .... ColumnN datatype );
Example
CREATE TABLE Employee_Info
(EmployeeID int, EmployeeName varchar(20),
EmergencyContactName varchar(20), PhoneNumber int,
Address varchar(50), City varchar(10), Country varchar(10));

5
 DDL - CREATE
CREATE TABLE using another TABLE
Example
CREATE TABLE ExampleTable AS
SELECT EmployeeName, PhoneNumber
FROM Employee_Info;

6
 DDL - DROP
This statement is used to drop (delete) an existing table
or a database with data
Syntax
DROP DATABASE Database_Name;
Example
DROP DATABASE Employee;
Syntax
DROP TABLE Table_Name;
Example
DROP Table Employee_Info

7
 DDL - TRUNCATE
This command is used to delete the
information(records) present in the table but does not
delete the structure of the table. So, once you use this
command, your information will be lost, but not the
table.
Syntax
TRUNCATE TABLE TableName;
Example
TRUNCATE Table Employee_Info;

8
 DDL - ALTER
 This command is used to delete, modify or add constraints or columns
in an existing table
 The ‘ALTER TABLE’ Statement with ADD/DROP COLUMN

Syntax
 ALTER TABLE TableName ADD ColumnName Datatype;
ALTER TABLE TableName DROP COLUMN ColumnName;
Example
ADD Column BloodGroup:
 ALTER TABLE Employee_Info ADD BloodGroup varchar(255);

DROP Column BloodGroup:

 ALTER TABLE Employee_Info DROP COLUMN BloodGroup;

9
 DDL - RENAME
This command is used to rename a table with the help
of ALTER TABLE
Syntax
ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME TO
new_table_name;
Example
ALTER TABLE Student RENAME TO
Student_Details;
ALTER TABLE Student RENAME COLUMN NAME
TO FIRST_NAME;

10
 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
SQL commands
SHOW – This command is used to list database and
database tables
USE – This command is used to select the database
INSERT – This command is used to insert data into a table
UPDATE – This command is used to update existing data
within a table
DELETE – This command is used to delete records from a
table
SELECT – This command is used to retrieve data from the
database table
11
 DDL - SHOW
This command is used to list out the available database

and database tables

Syntax
SHOW databases;

SHOW tables;

12
 DML - USE
The USE statement is used to select the database on
which you want to perform operations
Syntax
USE DatabaseName;
Example
USE Employee;

13
 DML - INSERT
 This statement is used to insert new records into the database table
Syntax
 INSERT INTO TableName (Column1, Column2,
Column3, ...,ColumnN) VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);

Example
 INSERT INTO Employee_Info(EmployeeID, EmployeeName,
Emergency ContactName, PhoneNumber, Address, City, Country)
VALUES (‘10', ‘Arun’,’Kamal', '9921321141', ‘No 12 Rich
Street', 'Chennai', 'India’);
 INSERT INTO Employee_Info VALUES (‘10', ‘Arun’,’Kamal',
'9921321141', ‘No 12 Rich Street', 'Chennai', 'India’);

14
 DML - UPDATE
This statement is used to modify the records already
present in the table
Syntax
UPDATE TableName SET Column1 = Value1,
Column2 = Value2, ... WHERE Condition;
Example
UPDATE Employee_Info SET EmployeeName =
‘Asha', City= ‘Hyderabad’ WHERE EmployeeID = 1;

15
 DML - DELETE
This statement is used to delete the existing records
in a table
Syntax
DELETE FROM TableName WHERE Condition;
Example
DELETE FROM Employee_Info WHERE
EmployeeName='Preeti‘;

16
 DML - SELECT
 This statement is used to select data from a database and the
data returned is stored in a result table, called the result-set.
Syntax
 SELECT Column1, Column2, ...ColumN FROM TableName;
 * is used to select all the columns from the table
 SELECT * FROM table_name;
Example
 SELECT EmployeeID, EmployeeName FROM
Employee_Info;
 * is used to select all from the table
 SELECT * FROM Employee_Info;

17
 Data Control Language(DCL)
SQL commands
GRANT - allow users access privileges to the database
REVOKE - withdraw users access privileges given by
using the GRANT command

18
 DCL - GRANT
 This command is employed to grant a privilege to a user.
GRANT command allows specified users to perform specified
tasks
Syntax
 GRANT privileges_names ON object TO user;

Example
 CREATE USER ‘UserName’
 USE DatabaseName;
 GRANT SELECT ON TableName TO ‘UserName’
 GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON TableName TO ‘UserName’
 GRANT ALL ON TableName TO ‘UserName’

19
 DCL - REVOKE
 It is employed to remove a privilege from a user. REVOKE
helps the owner to cancel previously granted permissions
 Syntax
 REVOKE privilege_name on objectname from user;
 Example
 REVOKE SELECT ON TableName TO ‘UserName’;
 REVOKE ALL ON TableName TO ‘UserName’;

20
 Transaction Control Language(TCL)
SQL Commands
COMMIT – This command is used to save data

permanently
ROLLBACK – This command is used to get the data

or restore the data to the last save point or last

committed state
SAVEPOINT – This command is used to save the data

at a particular point temporarily so that whenever

21
needed can be rollback to that particular point
 TCL - COMMIT
This command is used to save the data permanently
into the database
Whenever any DDL commands like -INSERT,
DELETE or UPDATE are performed, these can be
rollbacked if the data is not stored permanently
Syntax
COMMIT;

22
 TCL - ROLLBACK
This command is used to get the data or restore the
data to the last savepoint or last committed state
If due to some reasons the data inserted, deleted or
updated is not correct, you can rollback the data to a
particular savepoint or if save point is not done, then to
the last committed state
Syntax
ROLLBACK;

23
 TCL - SAVEPOINT
This command is used to save the data at a particular
point temporarily so that whenever needed can be
rollback to that particular point
Syntax
SAVEPOINT name;

24
 EMBEDDED SQL
Database languages are meant for dealing with databases
viz., defining, constructing, manipulating, sharing
All these transactions can be performed by a good
database developer or a SQL programmer
But in real-time, these developers or programmers will
not use the database. The actual use of DB is for the
normal user for whom DB is a black box
In order to make it easy for the normal user,
applications, UI or forms are created where the user can
enter values or requirements and the application program
will manipulate the request
25
 EMBEDDED SQL
Applications are developed using some general-
purpose languages like C, C++, JAVA, PYTHON,
PHP, etc.
These applications use UI to interact with the user
request but there is no relevancy with the DB
Both application language and DB language are
completely different from each other
This gap between application programs and SQL is
bridged by the use of embedded SQL

26
 EMBEDDED SQL
Embedded SQL is the one that combines the high-level
language with the DB language. It allows the
application languages to communicate with DB and
get requested result
The high-level languages which support embedding
SQLs within it are also known as the host language
Embedded SQL statements are SQL statements written
inline with the program source code of the host
language

27
 EMBEDDED SQL - PYTHON
Python needs a MySQL driver to access the MySQL
database
Download and install "MySQL Connector“
 python -m pip install mysql-connector-python

Create and test MySQL connection

28
 EMBEDDED SQL - PYTHON

A cursor is a temporary memory allocated by the Database Server at the time of

performing operations on the database by User

29
 EMBEDDED SQL - PYTHON

30
 EMBEDDED SQL - PYTHON

31
 EMBEDDED SQL - PYTHON

32
 Query Processing & Optimization
Query processing – activities involved in
retrieving data from the database
SQL query translation from high level to the low-
level language implementing relational algebra and
then query execution
Query optimization – selection of an efficient
query execution plan

33
 Query Processing & Optimization
Before processing the SQL query the system must
translate the query into a language that the system
understands
Hence the more useful internal representation is
based on the relational algebra

34
 Query Processing & Optimization

35
 Query Processing & Optimization
 Parser – Checks for the syntax and verifies the relation
mentioned in the query with the actual database
 Translator – translates the query into relational algebra
expressions
 Optimizer – collects the statistical information about the
query like CPU cycles, memory access time, etc., and
estimates the cost of the query
 Execution plan – informs the evaluation engine on how to
perform query execution based on the inputs from the
optimizer
 Evaluation engine – access the data from the database and
generates the required result
36
 Query Processing & Optimization
Example:
SELECT marks
FROM student
WHERE marks > 90;
This query can be translated into the following
relational algebra expressions
σ marks>90(∏marks(student))
 ∏marks(σ marks>90(student))

37
 Query Processing & Optimization
Consider the relational algebra expression for the query
Find the names of the bank customers who have an
account at any branch located in Chennai
 Type-1
 ∏customer_name(σbranch_city=‘Chennai’(branch x (account x
depositor)))

 Type-2
 ∏customer_name((σbranch_city=‘Chennai’ (branch)) x (account x
depositor))

38
 Transaction processing concept
A transaction is a program including a collection of
database operations, executed as a logical unit of data
processing
The operations performed in a transaction include one
or more database operations like insert, delete, update
or retrieve data
It is an atomic process that is either performed into
completion entirely or is not performed at all
A transaction involving only data retrieval without any
data update is called a read-only transaction

39
 Transaction processing concept
Each high-level operation can be divided into a
number of low-level tasks or operations
read_item() − reads data item from storage to main

memory
modify_item() − change value of an item in the main

memory
write_item() − write the modified value from main

memory to storage
40
 Transaction operations
 The low-level operations performed in a transaction are
 begin_transaction − A marker that specifies the start of transaction
execution
 read_item or write_item − Database operations that may be
interleaved with main memory operations as a part of the
transaction
 end_transaction − A marker that specifies the end of the
transaction
 commit − A signal to specify that the transaction has been
successfully completed in its entirety and will not be undone
 rollback − A signal to specify that the transaction has been
unsuccessful and so all temporary changes in the database are
undone. A committed transaction cannot be rolled back
41
 Transaction states
A transaction may go through a subset of five states,
active, partially committed, committed, failed, and
aborted
Active − The initial state where the transaction enters
is the active state. The transaction remains in this state
while it is executing read, write, or other operations
Partially Committed − The transaction enters this
state after the last statement of the transaction has been
executed
Committed − The transaction enters this state after
successful completion of the transaction and system
42
checks have issued a commit signal
 Transaction states
Failed − The transaction goes from partially
committed state or active state to failed state when it is
discovered that normal execution can no longer
proceed or system checks fail
Aborted − This is the state after the transaction has
been rolled back after failure and the database has been
restored to its state that was before the transaction
began

43
 Transaction states

44
 ACID Properties
 Any transaction must maintain the ACID properties, viz. Atomicity,
Consistency, Isolation, and Durability

 Atomicity − This property states that a transaction is an atomic unit of

processing, that is, either it is performed in its entirety or not performed at
all. No partial update should exist
 Consistency − A transaction should take the database from one consistent
state to another consistent state. It should not adversely affect any data item
in the database
 Isolation − A transaction should be executed as if it is the only one in the
system. There should not be any interference from the other concurrent
transactions that are simultaneously running
 Durability − If a committed transaction brings about a change, that change
should be durable in the database and not lost in case of any failure

45
 Concurrency Control
Concurrency Control in Database Management System
is a procedure of managing simultaneous operations
without conflicting with each other
It ensures that Database transactions are performed
concurrently and accurately to produce correct results
without violating data integrity of the respective
Database

46
 Concurrency Control - Problems
 Lost Updates occur when multiple transactions select the same
row and update the row based on the value selected
 Uncommitted dependency issues occur when the second
transaction selects a row which is updated by another
transaction (dirty read)
 Non-Repeatable Read occurs when a second transaction is
trying to access the same row several times and reads different
data each time.
 Incorrect Summary issue occurs when one transaction takes
summary over the value of all the instances of a repeated data
item, and the second transaction update a few instances of that
specific data item. In that situation, the resulting summary does
not reflect a correct result
47
 Concurrency Control Protocols
Lock-Based Protocols
Two Phase Locking Protocol
Timestamp-Based Protocols
Validation-Based Protocols

48
 Lock-based Protocols
Lock Based Protocol in DBMS is a mechanism in
which a transaction cannot Read or Write the data until
it acquires an appropriate lock
Lock based protocols help to eliminate the
concurrency problem in DBMS for simultaneous
transactions by locking or isolating a particular
transaction to a single user
 A lock is a data variable that is associated with a data
item
All lock requests are made to the concurrency-control
manager. Transactions proceed only once the lock
49
request is granted
 Lock-based Protocols
Shared Lock (S) - A shared lock is also called a Read-
only lock. With the shared lock, the data item can be
shared between transactions.
This is because you will never have permission to
update data on the data item
For example, consider a case where two transactions
are reading the account balance of a person. The
database will let them read by placing a shared lock.
However, if another transaction wants to update that
account’s balance, a shared lock prevents it until the
reading process is over
50
 Lock-based Protocols
Exclusive Lock (X) - a data item can be read as well
as written. This is exclusive and can’t be held
concurrently on the same data item
X-lock is requested using lock-x instruction.
Transactions may unlock the data item after finishing
the ‘write’ operation
For example, when a transaction needs to update the
account balance of a person. You can allow this
transaction by placing an X lock on it. Therefore, when
the second transaction wants to read or write, exclusive
lock prevents this operation
51
 Starvation and Deadlock
Starvation is the situation when a transaction needs to
wait for an indefinite period to acquire a lock

Deadlock refers to a specific situation where two or

more processes are waiting for each other to release a
resource or more than two processes are waiting for
the resource in a circular chain

52
 Two-Phase Locking Protocol
Two Phase Locking Protocol also known as 2PL
protocol is a method of concurrency control in DBMS
that ensures serializability by applying a lock to the
transaction data which blocks other transactions to
access the same data simultaneously
This locking protocol divides the execution phase of a
transaction into three different parts

53
 Two-Phase Locking Protocol
In the first phase, when the transaction begins to
execute, it requires permission for the locks it needs
The second part is where the transaction obtains all the
locks. When a transaction releases its first lock, the
third phase starts
In this third phase, the transaction cannot demand any
new locks. Instead, it only releases the acquired locks

54
 Two-Phase Locking Protocol
 Strict-Two phase locking system is almost similar to 2PL.
The only difference is that Strict-2PL never releases a lock
after using it. It holds all the locks until the commit point
and releases all the locks at one go when the process is over
 In Centralized 2 PL, a single site is responsible for the
lock management process. It has only one lock manager for
the entire DBMS
 Primary copy 2PL mechanism, many lock managers are
distributed to different sites. After that, a particular lock
manager is responsible for managing the lock for a set of
data items. When the primary copy has been updated, the
change is propagated to the slaves
55
 Two-Phase Locking Protocol
Distributed 2PL - In this kind of two-phase locking
mechanism, Lock managers are distributed to all sites.
They are responsible for managing locks for data at
that site. If no data is replicated, it is equivalent to
primary copy 2PL

56
 Timestamp-based Protocol
Timestamp based Protocol in DBMS is an algorithm
that uses the System Time or Logical Counter as a
timestamp to serialize the execution of the concurrent
transactions
The Timestamp-based protocol ensures that every
conflicting read and write operations are executed in a
timestamp order
The older transaction is always given priority in this
method. It uses system time to determine the
timestamp of the transaction. This is the most
commonly used concurrency protocol
57
 Validation based Protocol
Validation based Protocol in DBMS also known as
Optimistic Concurrency Control Technique is a
method to avoid concurrency in transactions
In this protocol, the local copies of the transaction data
are updated rather than the data itself, which results in
less interference while execution of the transaction

58
 Validation based Protocol
The Validation based Protocol is performed in the
following three phases:
Read Phase - the data values from the database can be read
by a transaction but the write operation or updates are only
applied to the local data copies, not the actual database
Validation Phase - the data is checked to ensure that there
is no violation of serializability while applying the
transaction updates to the database
Write Phase - the updates are applied to the database if the
validation is successful, else; the updates are not applied,
and the transaction is rolled back

59