Java Security

David A. Wheeler
[email protected]
(703) 845-6662

April 24, 2000

 Outline
• Java Basics
– What’s Java, Modes of Use, major components,
implications, implementations, politics
• Security-related capabilities (JDK 1.0, 1.1, “1.2”)
• Selected upcoming developments
• Miscellaneous
– Past breaches, malicious applets, advantages &
disadvantages, key points

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 2

 What’s Java?
Source code
• Java Technologies:
– Java language
Compiler
– Virtual machine (VM)/class file format

Developer
– Libraries
• Can use only VM or language Class files
• Developed by Sun

User
• Not related to “Javascript” Libraries
• Cross-Platform (WORA) Virtual Machine
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 3
 Java Modes of Use
• Applets: Auto-run when view web page
• Applications: Traditional program (performance?)
• Beans: Component (like OLE object)
• Servlets: Server-side applications
• Aglets: Intelligent Agents
• Doclets: Configurable doc generator
• Embedded Systems
• Smart Cards (“JavaCard”)
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 4
 Java Language
• Modern object-oriented (OO) language
– OO with single inheritance + multiple “interfaces”
– Classes grouped into hierarchical packages
– Strong static typing (no arbitrary pointers)
– Automatic garbage collection
– Exceptions
– Multithreaded
• Lacks enumerations and templates (generics)
• Syntax ~C++, semantics ~Ada95/Smalltalk
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 5
 Java Virtual Machine (VM) and
Class File Format
• Class file defines names/types/values of class
variables, constants, & methods
• Methods stored as instructions to stack-based VM
– Very similar to UCSD p-code
• VM executes class files (inc. collections of them)
– By interpretation, run-time compilation, or
combination; performance is a significant issue
• Before execution, VM usually runs “bytecode
verifier” to check legality of class file
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 6
 Java Libraries
• Set of built-in APIs, including:
– GUIs
– Networking
– Computation
• Growth area
• Several classes are security-related
– This presentation will skim ordinary crypto functions
such as ones for encryption/decryption, certificate
management, etc., since they are not essentially unique
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 7
 Class and Method
Access Control Modifiers
Access Control Class or Interface Member (Field or Method)
Modifier Accessibility Accessibility
Public All All if class or interface is
accessible; interface members
always public
Protected N/A Same package OR subclass

“default” Same package Same package

(Package private)
Private N/A Only same class (not
subclass)

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 8

 Implications of Java Basics
• No arbitrary pointers: references ~ capabilities
– Only creator & createe have reference for new object
– If objectset doesn’t pass a reference, you can’t
manipulate that object
• Can only manipulate objects in limited ways
– If data private, can only manipulate via methods
– Methods can be used to protect data
– Constructor method can limit who can create an object
• Software-enforced protection (small slips break it)
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 9
 Notes on Java Implementations
• “Java” is the general technology
• Multiple Java Implementations
– Sun, Microsoft (derived), Kaffe, …
– This presentation emphasizes Sun’s implementations
– Sun essentially controls the interface and reference
implementation

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 Java: Caught in
Political Cross-fire
• Microsoft
– Intentionally “polluted” with incompatible unmarked
extensions to fool developers into unportable code
– Sun sued & won court injunction partly forbidding this
• Sun
– Promised to support standardization (they have before)
– Customers trusted Sun & committed major resources
– Sun flirted with ISO & ECMA, then halted cooperation
– Greatly angered users: “Sun lied”
– Linux port taken without warning or acknowledgement
– Suddenly charged royalties on enterprise edition, even
to those who had partially funded its development
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 11
 Java: Current Political Situation
• Sun controls spec & primary implementation
– “Community” license means “Sun controls everything”
– Java is essentially Sun proprietary language/technology
• Disincentive for other organizations
– IBM, etc., don’t want to depend on a competitor
– Sole-source dangerous: surprise fees, nasty changes
• User best interests not in Sun/Microsoft interests
• To avoid total dependence on a capricious vendor:
– Consider open source, Linux, standardized languages
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 12
 Security-Related Capabilities
(1 of 2)
• JDK 1.0 (Fall 1995)
– Policy: “Sandbox” for applets; others unlimited
– Mechanisms: SecurityManager, Bytecode verifier,
Classloader
• JDK 1.1 (Spring 1997)
– Policy: can also grant total trust to signed applets
– Mechanisms: Java Archive (JAR), crypto-related APIs
• Inflexible: Too little or too much privilege

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 13

 Security-Related Capabilities
(2 of 2)
• Netscape & Microsoft Extensions
– Enabled more flexible approaches
– Incompatible with each other and with Sun
• J2SE (Java 2 Platform Standard Edition) (Fall 1998)
– Includes SDK 1.2 and runtime
– Policy: can also grant fine-grained privileges to specific
applets/classes based on source and/or signatures
– Mechanisms: AccessController, ProtectionDomain,
CodeSource, Permission, GuardedObject, …
– “Java Plug-in” supports both Microsoft & Netscape
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 14
 Java 1.0 Security Policy
• Sandbox Policy (for applets)
– Cannot access local filesystem or devices
– Network connections only to applet load source
– Cannot invoke any local program or library
– “Untrusted” indicator on top-level windows
– Cannot manipulate basic classes or another
ThreadGroup
– Appletviewer CL can be initialized to vary these
• Applications unlimited in 1.0; can code a policy
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 15
 SecurityManager
• Class defines check methods called by system
– E.G. “checkRead(String filename)”
– Method throws exception if invalid
• To create a security policy from scratch:
– Create a subclass (code) & instantiate
– Install using System.setSecurityManager; this cannot
be revoked or replaced
– This is used to create the Sandbox
– If no SecurityManager installed, all privileges granted
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 16
 Bytecode Verifier
• Checks a classfile for validity:
– Code only has valid instructions & register use
– Code does not overflow/underflow stack
– Does not convert data types illegally or forge pointers
– Accesses objects as correct type
– Method calls use correct number & types of arguments
– References to other classes use legal names
• Goal is to prevent access to underlying machine
– via forged pointers, crashes, undefined states
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 17
 ClassLoader
• Responsible for loading classes
– given classname, locates/generates its definition
– always looks at “standard” classes first
– every class has a reference to the classloader instance
that defined it
– keeps namespaces of different applets separate
(different ClassLoader instances)
– each ClassLoader instance ~ OS process
– “CLASSPATH” classes trusted in JDK 1.0-1.1, system
classes trusted, otherwise invokes bytecode verifier
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 18
 Java Archive (JAR) Format (1.1)
• Format for collecting & optionally signing sets of
files
– ZIP format + manifest + optional signatures
• Manifest
– In file META-INF/MANIFEST.MF
– Lists (some) JAR filenames, digests, digest
algorithm(s) (MD5, SHA)
• Signatures
– Separate manifest-like file, separate signature
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 19
 Java Cryptography Architecture
(Added in 1.1)
• Java cryptography architecture (JCA)
– Framework (API) for access to services implemented
by pluggable “providers”
– digital signature algorithms (DSA), message digest
algorithms (MD5 & SHA-1), key-generation
algorithms, simple certificate management (1.1 had no
API for specific formats)
– Simple key management tool (simple “database”)

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 20

 Problems with 1.0 through 1.1
• Sandbox too limiting
• “Trusted” programs given too much power
• Hard to define new security policy
– Must write own SecurityManager
– Must install it on its own JVM
• New privileges difficult to add
– New method must be added to SecurityManager
– Creates a backward incompatibility for each addition

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 21

 Netscape Extensions
• Navigator 4.0 added “Capabilities” API:
– Call to request privilege enable (string)
– If not been granted before, UI asks if ok
– Privilege disabled when method returns, but can be re-
enabled without UI
– Can disable or revert, can select which certificate to use
• May grant privileges to certificates or codebase
• Problems: Incompatible (Netscape only)

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 22

 Microsoft Extensions
• Used CAB not JAR for signatures (incompatible)
• IE 3.0: Selected signed applets trusted
• IE 4.0: Fine-grained “Trust-Based Security”
– User defines zones (stnd: Local, intranet, trusted sites, Internet,
untrusted sites)
– Each zone given privileges; standard privilege sets: High, Medium
(UI file I/O), Low security
– CAB file includes privilege request; query if beyond preapproved
set (& okay with admin)
• Problem: Incompatible (IE on Win32 only)
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 23
 Security-Related Capabilities in
Java 2 (SDK 1.2)
• Fine-grained configurable policies
– Sample Security Policy
– Runtime State: ProtectionDomain/CodeSource/Policy
– Java 2 Runtime Security Check Algorithm
– Permission & Its Subclasses
– SecurityManager & AccessController
– GuardedObject & Guard
• Java Cryptography Architecture (JCA) changes
• Java Cryptography Extension (JCE)
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 24
 Sample Fine-Grained
Security Policy for One User
Source of Code (CodeSource) Permissions
Base URL Signature
http://www.schwab.com/ Schwab’s signature •
Read/write file
classes/stockeditor.jar /home/daw/stocks

http://*.schwab.com/ (not required) •

Connect/accept
bankofamerica.com
ports 1-1023
•
Read file
/home/daw/logo.png

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 25

 Java 2: Each Class Has A
ProtectionDomain
ProtectionDomain1 ProtectionDomain2
PermissionCollection PermissionCollection
CodeSource CodeSource
1 1

Class1 ... Class2 ...

Instance1 1 1 Instance2
Asks
ClassLoader1 Policy

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 26

 ProtectionDomain Class
• ProtectionDomain class
– Created from a CodeSource and a PermissionCollection
– Defines the set of permissions granted to classes;
change the PermissionCollection to change permissions
– Each class belongs to ONE ProtectionDomain instance,
set at class creation time (and never changed again)
– Access to these objects restricted; getting its reference
requires RuntimePermission getProtectionDomain
• One ClassLoader can have >1 protection domain

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 27

 CodeSource Class
• Created from:
– a source (base) URL and
– array of certificates
• Immutable
• “implies” method implements URL partial
matches
– Permits policies to use URL patterns

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 28

 Policy Class
• Provides interface to user policy
– Given a CodeSource, returns a PermissionCollection
– Used during setup of ProtectionDomain to set a class’
permissions

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 29

 How a Class and
ProtectionDomain Are Loaded
1. Loaded class C1 requests an unloaded class C2
2. C1’s ClassLoader called, loads C2’s class file,
calls bytecode verifier
3. C2’s CodeSource determined
4. Policy object given CodeSource, returns
Permissions
5. If an existing ProtectionDomain has same
CodeSource & Permissions, reused, else new
ProtectionDomain created; C2 assigned to it
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 30
 Java 2 Runtime Security Check
Algorithm
• If method M requires permission P
– M’s implementation calls current
SecurityManager’s checkPermission(P)
• By default this calls new “AccessController” class
– For each call stack entry, unwind from caller:
– if caller’s ProtectionDomain lacks P, exception (fail)
– if caller called “doPrivileged” without context, return
– if caller called “doPrivileged” with context, check it:
return if context permits P else exception (fail).

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 31

 Examples of Algorithm At Work
• Multiple ProtectionDomains:
– Instance1 M1 calls Instance2 M2 calls System1 M3
– System1 M3 (in System’s ProtectionDomain) asks for a
permission check
– Permissions checked against the ProtectionDomains for
System1, then Class2, then Class1
• doPrivileged call (without context):
– Same example, but first System1 M3 calls doPrivileged
– When permission check requested, ProtectionDomain
for System1 checked and no others checked
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 32
 Context
• getContext() takes a snapshot of current execution
context (“stack trace”)
– snapshot includes ancestor threads
– stored in type AccessControlContext
– results can be stored & can used later to limit privileges
(instead of enabling “all” privileges)
• Purpose: support actions “on behalf of another”
– one thread posts event to another
– delayed actions (“cron” job)
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 33
 Algorithm Implications
• Default privileges are the intersection (minimum)
of all class’ permissions in call tree
– Without doPrivilege, permissions only decrease
• “doPrivilege” enables “all” class’ privileges
– Like Unix “setuid”; enables trusted classes to use their
full set of privileges but only when requested
– Without context enables all privileges
– With context enables only those privileges also in
given context; safe because resulting privileges always
less than without context
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 34
 Warning: Don’t Mix Protected
Variables and Permission Checks
• If a method M1 is not overridden, the
ProtectionDomain of its defining superclass used
• Methods running (even indirectly) with privilege
shouldn’t depend on protected variables
– Attacker creates subclass with new method M2
– M2 modifies protected variable used by M1
– Cause M1 to be invoked; M1 influenced by M2!
• Identified by David A. Wheeler Oct 1999
– Have not seen this in the literature
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 35
 Permission Class
• Permission class
– Encapsulates a permission granted or requested
– Can be set “readonly” (from then on immutable)
– Can be grouped using classes PermissionCollection and
Permissions
• This briefing’s terminology:
– permissions granted to a ProtectionDomain also called
“privileges”
– no separate “Privilege” class

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 36

 Permission Subclasses:
FilePermission Class
• Gives rights to local files/directories
• Path name/pattern
– Specific path: file, directory, directory/file
– All files in directory: directory/*
– All files recursively in directory: directory/-
– For current directory, omit “directory/”
– For all files (dangerous), “<<ALL FILES>>”
• Rights set (1+): read, write, execute, delete

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 37

 Permission Subclasses:
SocketPermission
• Host
– Local machine: “”, “localhost”
– Given machine: IP address or hostname
– All hosts in a domain: *.domain
– All hosts: *
• Portrange
– Single port: portnumber
– Port range: port1-port2, port1-, -port2
• Actions (1+): accept, connect, listen, resolve
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 38
 Permission Subclasses:
PropertyPermission
• Gives rights to properties
– Similar to OS environment variables
• Target
– Specific property: os.name
– Pattern: java.*
• Actions (1+): read, write

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 39

 Permission Subclasses: Other
Permission Subclasses
• RunTimePermission: string with permission name
– createClassLoader
– getClassLoader
– setSecurityManager
– exitVM
– ...
• Many other specialized Permission subclasses
• AllPermission
– special class meaning “all permissions”
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 40
 SecurityManager Changes
• New method checkPermission(P)
– Throws exception if permission P not held, else returns
– All previous “check” methods rewritten in terms of
checkPermission
– Permits creation of new Permissions without changing
SecurityManager
• By default, calls on AccessController class
– AccessController implements the new algorithm

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 41

 GuardedObject (1 of 3)
• To protect one method in all instances, use
SecurityManager directly as shown so far
• To protect a reference to an individual instance,
consider using “GuardedObject”:

requesting getObject()
GuardedObject object-to-guard
class 1
3 2 checkGuard()

reply with
object-to- Guard
guard
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 42
 GuardedObject (2 of 3)
• GuardedObject class encapsulates object-to-guard
– asks “Guard” interface to determine if access ok
– Permission implements Guard by calling
SecurityManager. checkPermission(self)
– PermissionCollection doesn’t implement (I’ve reported)
• Provider of object-to-guard does the following:
– Instantiates new Guard (e.g., a Permission)
– Instantiates GuardedObject, using object-to-guard and
the guard
– Gives GuardedObject’s reference to requestors
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 43
 GuardedObject (3 of 3)
• Clients who wish to use object-to-guard call
GuardedObject’s getObject()
– GuardedObject instance calls its Guard’s checkGuard()
– if ok, object-to-guard’s reference returned
– if not ok, security exception thrown

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 44

 Java Cryptography Architecture
(JCA) Changes in 1.2
• Adds more APIs that providers can support
– Keystore creation and management
– Algorithm parameter management
– Algorithm parameter generation
– Conversions between different key representations
– Certificate factory support to generate certificates and
certificate revocation lists (CRLs) from their encodings
(Sun implements X.509’s)
– Random-number generation (RNG) algorithm

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 45

 Java Cryptography Extension
(JCE)
• Adds encryption, key exchange, key generation,
message authentication code (MAC)
– Multiple “providers” supported
– Keys & certificates in “keystore” database
• Separate due to export control

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 46

 Other Areas In Development:
JSSE and JAAS
• Java Secure Socket Extension
– Implements SSL
• Java Authentication and Authorization Service
– Based on PAM: pluggable authenticators for
passwords, smart cards, biometric devices, etc.
– Authenticators may be required, requisite (stop on
failure), sufficient (but not required), or optional
– Adds user-centric (vs. code-centric) control:
permissions granted to Principal (not just CodeSource),
implemented through a modified SecurityManager
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 47
 Past Java Security Breaches
(1 of 2)
• 8 Serious Breaches listed in Java Security (1997)
– “Jumping the Firewall” (DNS interaction)
– “Slash and Burn” (slash starts classname)
– “Applets running wild” (evil class loader installed and
creates type confusion)
– “Casting Caution” (failed to test if method private, type
casting)
– “Tag-Team Applets” (create type confusion)

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 48

 Past Java Security Breaches
(2 of 2)
– “You’re not my type” (flaw in array implementation -
type confusion)
– “Casting Caution #2” (as before, but in a loop test
wasn’t repeated)
– “Big Attacks Come in Small Packages” (untrusted code
could be loaded into sensitive packages, e.g. com.ms,
and gain their privileges)
• Others have been announced since
– See http://java.sun.com/sfaq/chronology.html
– Many are problems in bytecode verifier or classloader
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 49
 Malicious Applets
(Staying Within the Sandbox)
• Denial of Service
– Deny platform use (busy threads, loop, exhaust GUI
resources)
– Kill other threads
• Invasion of Privacy
• Annoyance: constant sound
• Flashing display (causes seizures in some users)
• Steal CPU cycles (e.g. crack encryption)

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 50

 Java Advantages
• Permits controlled execution of less trusted code
(vs. ActiveX)
• Permits fine-grained permission control
• Attention paid to security
• Portability
• “Instant installation”
• Sun’s source reviewable (not open source)

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 51

 Java Security Disadvantages
(1 of 3)
• Hard to prove correct
– complex from security point-of-view
– rapidly expanding/changing
– VM+libraries lacks formal security model
• Many internal interdependencies (vs. reference
monitors); often breaks “all the way”
• Complex dependencies on other systems
– OS, browsers, network (DNS), PKI

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 52

 Java Security Disadvantages
(2 of 3)
• Applets evade many security measures (e.g. most
firewalls)
• Breaches demonstrated
• Many areas immature
• No standardized auditing (MS extension)
• Simplifies reverse engineering of code (problem?)
• Poor performance may encourage security-
weakening “shortcuts”
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 53
 Java Security Disadvantages
(3 of 3)
• Weak against denial-of-service & nuisances
• Insecure implementation defaults (e.g. null
ClassLoader or SecurityManager)
• Security policy management too complex for
endusers and weak administrative support
• Flexible policies accepted by users may permit
hidden breaching interactions

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 54

 Key Points
• Progression of Access Control Flexibility
– JDK 1.0: Sandbox + total trust of local applications
– JDK 1.1: Above + optional total trust with signature
– SDK 1.2: Above + Fine-grained access control
• Java 2 ProtectionDomains
– Checks call tree, by default intersection of permissions
– doPrivilege permits permissions to be re-enabled
• GuardedObject to protect specific objects

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 55

 Useful References
• Li Gong, Inside Java 2 Platform Security, 1999,
Palo Alto, CA: Addison-Wesley.
• G. McGraw & E. Felten, Java Security: Hostile
Applets, Holes, and Antidotes, 1997, NY: John
Wiley & Sons.
• G. McGraw & E. Felten, Securing Java: Getting
Down to Business with Mobile Code, 1999, NY:
John Wiley & Sons, http://www.securingjava.com

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 56

 Useful Websites
• Sun’s Java website: http://java.sun.com
• Existing Java programs/info available at:
– http://www.gamelan.com
– http://www.jars.com (Java Applet Rating Service)
• RST’s Java Security Hotlist
– http://www.rstcorp.com/javasecurity/links.html

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 57

 About this Briefing
• This briefing is at: http://www.dwheeler.com
• This entire briefing is GPL’ed:
– (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler.
– This information is free information; you can redistribute it and/or modify
it under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL) as published
by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the license, or (at
your option) any later version. This information is distributed in the hope
that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even
the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A
PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU GPL for more details. You
should have received a copy of the GNU GPL along with this
information; if not, see http://www.fsf.org/copyleft/gpl.txt or write to the
Free Software Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA
02111-1307
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 58
 Backup Slides

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 59

 Java Naming and Directory
Interface (JNDI)
• Unified interface to multiple naming & directory
services
– E.G.: LDAP (v2 & v3), NIS(YP), NIS+, CORBA’s
COS Naming, Novell NDS, DNS

API JNDI Impl. SPI

Application Service
Manager
October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 60
 Java Card (Smart Cards)
• Limited space:256bytes RAM, 8K EEPROM, 16K
ROM
• ISO 7816: command sent, card responds
• Multiple applets/card supported
• Subset JVM
– Omits dynamic class loading, security manager,
threads/synchronization, object cloning, finalization,
large primitive data types (float, double, long, char)

October 15, 2008 (C) 1999-2000 David A. Wheeler 61