FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

RETAINING WALLS
Structures that are built to retain vertical or nearly vertical
earth banks or any other material are
called retaining walls

1
Figure 11.1 Use of retaining walls 2
3
 Cont’
• Whatever may be the type of wall, all the walls
listed above have to withstand lateral pressures
either from earth or any other material on their
faces.
• The pressures acting on the walls try to move
the walls from their position. The walls should
be so designed as to keep them stable in their
position.
• Gravity walls resist movement because of their
heavy sections. No reinforcement is required in
these walls
4
• Semi-gravity walls are not as heavy as gravity
walls. A small amount of reinforcement is used
for reducing the mass of concrete. The stems of
cantilever walls are thinner in section. The base
slab is the cantilever portion. These walls are
made of reinforced concrete. Counterfort walls
are similar to cantilever walls except that the
stem of the walls span horizontally between
vertical brackets known as counterforts. The
counterforts are provided on the backfill side.
Buttressed walls are similar to counterfort walls
except the brackets or buttress walls are
provided on the opposite side of the backfill. 5
6
 LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE THEORY
• There are two classical earth pressure theories.
They are:
• Coulomb's earth pressure theory.
• Rankine's earth pressure theory.
• Consider a rigid retaining wall with a plane vertical
face, as shown in Fig. 11.3(a), is backfilled with
cohesionless soil.
• If the wall does not move even after back filling,
the pressure exerted on the wall is termed as
pressure for the at rest condition of the wall.
7
 Cont’
• If suppose the wall gradually rotates about
point A and moves away from the backfill, the
unit pressure on the wall is gradually reduced
and after a particular displacement of the wall
at the top, the pressure reaches a constant
value. The pressure is the minimum possible.
This pressure is termed the active pressure
since the weight of the backfill is responsible
for the movement of the wall.

8
 Cont’
• If the wall is smooth, the resultant pressure
acts normal to the face of the wall. If the wall
is rough, it makes an angle δ with the normal
on the wall. The angle δ is called the angle of
wall friction. As the wall moves away from the
backfill, the soil tends to move forward.
• When the wall movement is sufficient, a soil
mass of weight W ruptures along surface ADC
shown in Fig. 11.3(a).

9
 Cont’
• This surface is slightly curved. If the surface is
assumed to be a plane surface AC, analysis would
indicate that this surface would make an angle of
45° + φ/2 with the horizontal.
• If the wall is now rotated about A towards the
backfill, the actual failure plane ADC is also a
curved surface [Fig. 11.3(b)]. However, if the failure
surface is approximated as a plane AC, this makes
an angle 45° - φ/2 with the horizontal and the
pressure on the wall increases from the value of the
at rest condition to the maximum value possible.
10
 Cont’
• The maximum pressure Pp that is developed is
termed the passive earth pressure. The
pressure is called passive because the weight
of the backfill opposes the movement of the
wall.
• It makes an angle δ with the normal if the wall
is rough.

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13
LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE FOR AT REST CONDITION

• If the wall is rigid and does not move with the

pressure exerted on the wall, the soil behind
the wall will be in a state of elastic equilibrium.
Consider a prismatic element E in the backfill
at depth z shown in Fig. 11.5.
• Element E is subjected to the following
pressures.

14
 Cont’
• where Ƴ is the effective unit weight of the soil. If
we consider the backfill is homogeneous then
both σv and σh increase linearly with depth z. In
such a case, the ratio of σh to σV remains
constant with respect to depth, that is:

• where K0 is called the coefficient of earth

pressure for the at rest condition or at rest
earth pressure coefficient.

15
 Cont’
• The lateral earth pressure σh acting on the
wall at any depth z may be expressed as:
 h  K 0 z
• The expression for σh at depth H, the height of
the wall, is:  h  K 0 H
• The distribution of σh on the wall is given in
Fig. 11.5(b). The total pressure P0 for the soil
for the at rest condition is:
1
P0  K 0 H 2
2
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17
18
19
 Cont’
• According to Jaky (1944), a good
approximation for K0 is given by Eq. (11.5).
K 0  1  sin 

• Exercise 11.1

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 RANKINE'S STATES OF PLASTIC EQUILIBRIUM
FOR COHESIONLESS SOILS
• Let XY in Fig. 11.6(a) represent the horizontal
surface of a semi-infinite mass of cohesionless
soil with a unit weight Ƴ.
• The soil is in an initial state of elastic
equilibrium. Consider a prismatic block ABCD.
The depth of the block is z and the cross-
sectional area of the block is unity. Since the
element is symmetrical with respect to a
vertical plane, the normal stress on the base AD
is:  v  zand σv is a principal stress
21
 Cont’
• The normal stress σh on the vertical planes AB
or DC at depth z may be expressed as a
function of vertical stress.

• where K0 is the coefficient of earth pressure

for the at rest condition which is assumed as a
constant for a particular soil. The horizontal
stress σh varies from zero at the ground
surface to K0Ƴz at depth z.

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23
24
25
 Cont’
• If we imagine that the entire mass is subjected to
horizontal deformation, such deformation is a
plane deformation. Every vertical section
through the mass represents a plane of
symmetry for the entire mass. Therefore, the
shear stresses on vertical and horizontal sides of
the prism are equal to zero. Due to the
stretching, the pressure on vertical sides AB and
CD of the prism decreases until the conditions
of plastic equilibrium are satisfied, while the
pressure on the base AD remains unchanged.
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 Cont’
• Any further stretching merely causes a plastic
flow without changing the state of stress.
• The transition from the state of plastic
equilibrium to the state of plastic flow
represents the failure of the mass. Since the
weight of the mass assists in producing an
expansion in a horizontal direction, the
subsequent failure is called active failure.

27
 Cont’
• If, on the other hand, the mass of soil is
compressed, as shown in Fig. 11.6(b), in a
horizontal direction, the pressure on vertical
sides AB and CD of the prism increases while
the pressure on its base remains unchanged at
Ƴz. Since the lateral compression of the soil is
resisted by the weight of the soil, the
subsequent failure by plastic flow is called a
passive failure.

28
 Cont’
• The problem now consists of determining the
stresses associated with the states of plastic
equilibrium in the semi-infinite mass and the
orientation of the surface of sliding. The
problem was solved by Rankine (1857).
• The plastic states which are produced by
stretching or by compressing a semi-infinite
mass of soil parallel to its surface are called
active and passive Rankine states respectively.

29
 Cont’
• The orientation of the planes may be found by
Mohr's diagram. Horizontal stretching or
compressing of a semi-infinite mass to develop a
state of plastic equilibrium is only a concept.
However, local states of plastic equilibrium in a soil
mass can be created by rotating a retaining wall
about its base either away from the backfill for an
active state or into the backfill for a passive state in
the way shown in Figs. 1 1.3(c) and (d)
respectively. In both cases, the soil within wedge
ABC will be in a state of plastic equilibrium and line
AC represents the rupture plane.
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Mohr Circle for Active and Passive States
of Equilibrium in Granular Soils
• Active State of Stress
 From Mohr circle Ca,
Major principal stress = OP1   1  z
Minor principal stress = OP2   3
1   3 1   3
0O1  ,0C1 
2 2
From triangle 0O1C1, or

1   3 1   3
 sin 
2 2

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 Cont’
• Or
(
𝜎 1=𝜎 3
1+sin 𝜑
)
1− sin 𝜑 (2
)
0 𝜑
=𝜎 3 tan 4 5 + =𝜎 3 𝑁 𝜑
2
• Therefore, 1
Pa   3   zK A
N
• Where KA= coefficient of earth pressure for
the active state = tan 2 (45 0   )
2
= 1  sin 
1  sin 
32
 Cont’
• Passive State of Stress
• Cp is the Mohr circle in Fig. (11.6e) for the
passive state and P3 is the origin of planes.
• Major principal stress=  1  PP  0P3
• Minor principal stress=   0 P  z
3 1
• From triangle 0O2C2,  1  zN 
Since   P and   z , we have
1 P 3
PP  zN   zK P

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 Cont’
• Where Kp= coefficient of earth pressure for
the passive state = tan 2 (45 0   2 )
• = 1  sin 
1  sin 
• The shear failure lines are P3C2 and P3C’2 and
and they make an angle of 45 0   with the
2
horizontal.

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 RANKINE'S EARTH PRESSURE AGAINST SMOOTH
VERTICAL WALL WITH COHESIONLESS BACKFILL
Backfill Horizontal-Active Earth Pressure
The lateral active pressure at A is Pa  HK A

35
 Cont’
• The total pressure on AB is therefore

• Pa acts at a height H/3 above the base of the

wall.

36
 Cont’
• Backfill Horizontal-Passive Earth Pressure
The passive pressure Pp at A is: PP  HK P
the total pressure against the wall is:

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• Relationship between Kp and KA
• The ratio of KP and KA may be writen as:
• tan  45   
2
 or 0 1
K P
  2  K  P
tan    KA
 45  2 
KA 2 0

 

Figure 11.8 Rankine's passive earth pressure in cohesionless soil

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Figure 1 1 .9 Rankine's active pressure under submerged
condition in cohesionless soil
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 Active Earth Pressure-Backfill Soil
Submerged with the Surface Horizontal
• When the backfill is fully submerged, two
types of pressures act on wall AB. (Fig. 1 1.9)
They are:
 The active earth pressure due to the
submerged weight of soil
 The lateral pressure due to water
At any depth z the total unit pressure on the wall
is

40
 Cont’
• At depth z=H, we have

• The total pressure acting on the wall at a

height H/3 above the base is

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Active Earth Pressure-Backfill Partly Submerged
with a Uniform Surcharge Load

Figure 11.10 active pressure in cohesionless backfill under Rankine's

partly submerged condition with surcharge load
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 Cont’
• The ground water table is at a depth of H1
below the surface and the soil above this level
has an effective moist unit weight of y. The soil
below the water table is submerged with a
submerged unit weight Ƴb. In this case, the
total unit pressure may be expressed as given
below.
• At depth H1 at the level of the water table:

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• At depth H we have

• The pressure distribution is given in Fig. 1

1.10(b). It is assumed that the value of φ
remains the same throughout the depth H.
From Fig. 1 1.10(b), we may say that the total
pressure Pa acting per unit length of the wall
may be written as equal to

44
Sloping Surface-Active Earth Pressure

45
 Cont’
• Consider a rhombic element E within the
plastic zone ABC which is shown to a larger
scale outside. The base of the element is
parallel to the backfill surface which is inclined
at an angle β to the horizontal. The horizontal
width of the element is taken as unity.
• Let σv = the verticalab
stress
 zacting
cos  on an
elemental length
• σl = the lateral pressure acting on vertical
surface be of the element
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47
  n   v cos   z cos  cos   z cos 
2

   v sin   z cos  sin 

• Now we have (after simplification)

48
 Cont’
• The pressure distribution on the wall is shown
in Fig. 1 1 . 1 l(b). The active pressure at depth
H is Pa  HK A
• Which acts parallel to the surface. The total
pressure Pa per unit length of the wall is
1
Pa  H 2 K A
2
• which acts at a height H/3 from the base of
the wall and parallel to the sloping surface of
the backfill.
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Sloping Surface-Passive Earth Pressure (Fig. 11.12)
• An equation for P for a sloping backfill surface
can be developed in the same way as for an
active case. The equation for P may be
expressed as : PP  1 H 2 K P
2

• P acts at a height H/3 above point A and

parallel to the sloping surface. 50
In general the following recommendations may be made for the
application of the Rankine or Coulomb formula without the introduction
of significant errors:
1. Use the Rankine formula for cantilever and counterfort walls.
2. Use the Coulomb formula for solid and semisolid gravity walls.

Exercises
• From examples 11.2 up to 11.7

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 STABILITY OF RETAINING WALLS
• The stability of retaining walls should be checked for
the following conditions:
 Check for sliding
 Check for overturning
 Check for bearing capacity failure
 Check for base shear failure
• The minimum factors of safety for the stability of the
wall are:
 Factor of safety against sliding =1.5
 Factor of safety against overturning = 2.0
 Factor of safety against bearing capacity failure = 3.0
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 Stability Analysis
• Consider a cantilever wall with a sloping backfill
for the purpose of analysis. The same principle
holds for the other types of walls.
• Fig. 19.6 gives a cantilever wall with all the
forces acting on the wall and the base, where
• Pa= active earth pressure acting at a height H/3
over the base on section AB
• Ph= Pa cos β
• Pv=Pa sin β and β is slope angle of the backfill

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54
55
 Cont’
• Ws= weight of soil
• Wc= weight of wall including base
• Wt= the resultant of Ws and Wc
• Pp= Passive earth pressure at the toe side of
the wall,
• FR = base sliding resistance

56
 Cont’
• Check for Sliding (Fig. 19.6)
The force that moves the wall = horizontal force
Ph,
The force that resists the movement is
FR  c a B  R tan   PP
R= total vertical force
B= Width of base
δ= angle of wall friction
ca = unit adhesion
The factor of safety against sliding is FS  FR  1.5
Ph
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 Cont’
• In case Fs < 1.5, additional factor of safety can
be provided by constructing one or two keys at
the base level shown in Fig. 19.6b. The passive
pressure P (Fig. 19.6a) in front of the wall
should not be relied upon unless it is certain
that the soil will always remain firm and
undisturbed.

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Check for Overturning

59
 Cont’
• The forces acting on the wall are shown in Fig.
19.7. The overturning and stabilizing moments
may be calculated by taking moments about
point O. The factor of safety against
overturning is therefore

Wc l c  Ws l s  Pv B
we may write (Fig. 19.7) F0 
Ph ( H )
• Fo should not be less than 2 3
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 Check for Bearing Capacity Failure (Fig.
19.8)
• In Fig. 19.8, Wt is the resultant of Ws and Wc.
PR is the resultant of Pa and Wf and PR meets
the base at m. R is the resultant of all the
vertical forces acting at m with an eccentricity
e. Fig. 19.8 shows the pressure distribution at
the base with a maximum qt at the toe and a
minimum qh at the heel.
• An expression for e may be written as
• e  B  M  M  where R=sum of vertical forces
R 0

2 V
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62
 Cont’
• The values of qt and qh may be calculated by making
use of the equations:

• where, qa = R/B = allowable bearing pressure.

• The ultimate bearing capacity qu may be determined
using Eq. (12.27) taking into account the eccentricity.
It must be ensured that
• Exercises: 19.1, 63