Computer Networking

Contents

Here’s what you’ll find in this.

1. Components
2. OSI Model
3. Classification
4. Devices
5. Protocols
6. DNS & DHCP
7. Network Commands
 What is a Computer Network?

Communication
between two or
more network
Interfaces.
Components of Computer Network

1. Two or more computers/Devices

2. Cables as links between the computers
3. A network interfacing card(NIC) on each
4. computer
5. Switches
6. Routers
7. Software called Network operating
system(NOS)
 OSI Model
● People around the world uses computer network to communicate with each other.

● For worldwide data communication, systems must be developed which are compatible to
communicate with each other.

● There should be standard communication methods & devices.

● ISO (International Organization of Standardization) has developed this standard.

 OSI Model
● This communication model is called as Open System Interconnection (OSI).
● ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture developed in 1984.
 OSI Model
● The basic elements of a layered model are
○ services
○ protocols
○ and interfaces.

1. A service is a set of actions that a layer offers to another (higher) layer.

2. A Protocol is a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange information.
3. A Interface is communication between the layers.
Sending - Receiving Letters
Sending - Receiving Data
Summary of Layers
Classification of network By Geography

➔ LAN
◆ Local area Network
➔ WAN
◆ Wide Area Network
➔ MAN
◆ Metropolitan area network
➔ CAN
◆ Campus Area Network
➔ PAN
◆ Personal Area Network
 Switches
Switches facilitate the sharing of resources by connecting together all the devices, including computers,
printers, and servers, in a small business network
 ROUTER
A router receives and sends data S
on computer networks. Routers are sometimes confused with
network hubs, modems, or network switches. However, routers can combine Multiple Networks
together.
 Protocols
In the networking and communications area, a protocol is the formal specification
that defines the procedures that must be followed when transmitting or receiving
data. Protocols define the format, timing, sequence, and error checking used on
the network.
TCP UDP
 Key Difference Between TCP/IP and OSI Model
TCP/IP is a practical model with standardized protocols that tackles specific communication challenges. On the other
hand, OSI is a comprehensive framework that is not tied to any specific protocols and covers different network
communication methods.

● OSI has 7 layers, whereas TCP/IP has 4 layers.

● The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual model that defines network communication used by systems open
to interconnection and communication with other systems. On the other hand, TCP/IP helps you to determine
how a specific computer should be connected to the internet and how you can be transmitted between them.
● OSI header is 5 bytes, whereas TCP/IP header size is 20 bytes.
● OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection, whereas TCP/IP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.
● OSI follows a vertical approach, whereas TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach.
● OSI model, the transport layer, is only connection-oriented, whereas the TCP/IP model is both connection-
oriented and connectionless.
● OSI model is developed by ISO (International Standard Organization), whereas TCP Model is developed by
ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network).
● OSI model helps you to standardize router, switch, motherboard, and other hardware, whereas TCP/IP helps
you to establish a connection between different types of computers.
 DNS
The Domain Name System (DNS)
is the phonebook of the Internet.
Humans access information online
through domain names, like
nytimes.com or espn.com. Web
browsers interact through
Internet Protocol (IP) addresses.
DNS translates domain names to
IP addresses so browsers can load
Internet resources.
 DHCP
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
is a client/server protocol that automatically
provides an Internet Protocol (IP) host with its
IP address and other related configuration
information such as the subnet mask and
default gateway.
DHCP operations fall into four phases:
server discovery, IP lease offer, IP
lease request, and IP lease
acknowledgement.

These stages are often abbreviated as

DORA for discovery, offer, request, and
acknowledgement.

The server listens on UDP port number

67, and the client listens on UDP port
number 68.
Protocols & Port Numbers
 IP Addressing
An IP address represents a
unique address that
distinguishes any device on
the internet or any network
from another. IP or Internet
Protocol defines the set of
commands directing the setup
of data transferred through
the Internet or any other local
network.
How do IP addresses work?
The use of IP addresses typically happens behind the scenes. The process works like this:
1. Your device indirectly connects to the internet by connecting at first to a network connected
to the internet, which then grants your device access to the internet.
2. When you are at home, that network will probably be your Internet Service Provider (ISP).
At work, it will be your company network.
3. Your IP address is assigned to your device by your ISP.
4. Your internet activity goes through the ISP, and they route it back to you, using your IP
address. Since they are giving you access to the internet, it is their role to assign an IP
address to your device.
5. However, your IP address can change. For example, turning your modem or router on or off
can change it. Or you can contact your ISP, and they can change it for you.
6. When you are out and about – for example, traveling – and you take your device with you,
your home IP address does not come with you. This is because you will be using another
network (Wi-Fi at a hotel, airport, or coffee shop, etc.) to access the internet and will be
using a different (and temporary) IP address, assigned to you by the ISP of the hotel,
IP Addressing Structure
● IP adds has 2 parts: net-id &
host-id
● Two different networks must
have different network
addresses (net-id).
● 2 different hosts in the same
network must have different
host addresses (host-id).
● Hosts in the same network
have the same network
address.
● Broadcast domain: one
network address
● Network address = IP
address AND Subnet
IPv4 Addresses Classes and Reserved Ranges
● Class A
0---: If the first bit of an IPv4 address is “0”, this means that the address is part of class A.
This means that any address from 0.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255 is in class A.
● Class B
10--: Class B includes any address from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255. This represents
the addresses that have a “1” for their first bit, but don’t have a “1” for their second bit.
● Class C
110-: Class C is defined as the addresses ranging from 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255.
This represents all of the addresses with a “1” for their first two bits but without a “1” for their
third bit.
● Class D
1110: This class includes addresses that have “111” as their first three bits, but a “0” for the
next bit. This address range includes addresses from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255.
● Class E
1111: This class defines addresses between 240.0.0.0 and 255.255.255.255. Any address
that begins with four “1” bits is included in this class.
Reserved Private Ranges

There are also some portions of the IPv4 space that are reserved for specific
uses.
● One of the most useful reserved ranges is the loopback range specified by
addresses from 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255. This range is used by
each host to test networking to itself. Typically, this is expressed by the
first address in this range: 127.0.0.1.

Each of the normal classes also has a range that is used to designate private
network addresses. For instance,
● Class A range: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
● Class B range: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255.
● Class C range: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
 Private IP vs Public IP
Private IP Public IP

Used with LAN or within an Used in a Public Network (Internet)

organization
Not Recognized on the Internet Recognized on Internet

Given by Administrator Given by ISP (Internet Service

Provider)
Unique within the Network and Globally unique
Organization
Free Pay to ISP (or IANA)

Unregistered IP Registered IP
 Subnet Mask

Subnet Mask:-Its an address used to identify the network and host portion of the
ip address
● Class A N.H.H.H 255.0.0.0 = 8
● Class B N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0 = 16
● Class C N.N.N.H 255.255.255.0 = 24

Note:- "255" represents the network and "0" represents the host.

Network:- collection/group hosts

Host:- Single PC/ computer.
Default Gateway:- It's the network's entry and exit point.
ex:- The ip address of the router ethernet address.
SUBNETTING
It is the Dividing of a Single Network into Multiple Networks.
Converting Host bits into Network Bits i.e. Converting 0’s and 1’s Subnetting can be performed
in two ways.
● FLSM (Fixed Length Subnet Mask)
● VLSM (Variable Length subnet mask)

Subnetting can be done based on requirements.

● Requirement of Hosts? 2h - 2 >= requirement
● Requirement of Networks? 2n >= requirement
 What is Supernetting or CIDR?
Classless Inter-Domain Routing
(CIDR) merges or combines network
addresses of the same class into
one single address to reduce the
size of the routing table. It is done
on the core router to reduce the size
of the routing table. It is
implemented by ISPs (internet
service providers).