HEAT

CONDUCTION

Nazaruddin Sinaga
Efficiency and Energy Conservation Laboratory
Diponegoro University

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Heat conduction
 Heat conduction

The rate of heat transfer by conduction Q

T2  T1
Q  kA
L
k - thermal conductivity.
 Table 1. Thermal conductivity

Materials Thermal conductivity (in W/ mK)

Diamond 3000

Copper 390

Stainless steel 15

Firebrick 1

Mineral wool 0.048

Water 0.06

Air (1 atm) 0.026

Hydrogen (1 atm) 0.18

 Heat conduction
T2  T1
Q  kA
L

T1  T2
Q
Rth
Thermal resistance Rth  L /(kA)
Heat conduction by composite media

composite
Rth  R  R  R
1
th
2
th
N
th

Q  T1  T2  R composite
th
 Fourier’s 1st law of heat conduction
q=Q/A is the rate of heat transfer per unit cross-
sectional area, or heat flux.

T2  T1 
q  k q  kT
L
• The negative sign represents that heat flows in the
direction opposite to temperature gradient
 One dimensional solidification

The generated heat due to heat of fusion in

solidification will be conducted away from interface
to solid and liquid bulk phases.

 S LV  k S TS  k L TL
  S LV  k S TS  k L TL
Interface migration rate
Single crystal growth:
Interface stability:TL  0
Maximum pulling speed

Vmax  k S TS /  S L 
Fourier’s 2nd law of heat conduction
Consider an infinite small volume in a thermal
conductor
heat conduction through the surface of the
volume
   q  kT

• The rate of heat generation inside 

• The heat storage due to temperature change

  cT / t
Fourier’s 2nd law of heat conduction

kT     cT / t  0

T   / k  T / t

where =c/k is the thermal diffusivity

Material  m2/s106 at 300K

Cu 114
Lead 25
Steel 12
Brick 0.5
Water 0.13
Air 0.3
1D steady state heat conduction
T   / k  T / t

d 2T / dx 2  0

T=ax+b

T2  T1
T x   x  T1
L
1D Unsteady State Heat Conduction

T   / k  T / t

d 2T / dx 2  T / t

 x 
T  TM  T0 erfc    T0
 2 t 
 Boundary and Initial
Conditions
To determine the temperature distribution in a
medium, it is necessary to solve the appropriate
form of the heat equation. However, the solution
depends on the physical conditions existing at the
boundaries of the medium and, if the situation is
time dependent, on conditions existing in the
medium at some initial time. With regard to the
boundary conditions, there are several common
possibilities that are simply expressed in
mathematical form.
Boundary Conditions for the Heat
Equation at the Surface (x = 0)
Boundary Conditions for the Heat
Equation at the Surface (x = 0)
 Steady-State Conduction

Using the heat equation for steady-state

conditions, we will determine the temperature
distributions for one-dimensional plane walls
and radial systems. We will introduce the
concept of thermal resistance useful for
representing systems and their boundary
conditions by an equivalent thermal circuit.
The Plane Wall
The Composite Wall
Contact Resistance
One-Dimensional Radial Systems
Temperature Distribution
The Sphere
One-Dimensional, Steady-State Solutions to
the Heat Equation (q = 0 and k constant) and
Associated Thermal Resistances
 CONDUCTION WITH ENERGY
GENERATION
The Plane Wall

Figure 11 Conduction in a plane wall with uniform heat generation.

Temperature distributions for (a) Asymmetrical boundary conditions, Eq.
44, (b) Symmetrical boundary conditions, Eqs.47 and (c) Adiabatic
surface at midplane, Eqs. 47.
 Conduction with Energy Generation
Consider the plane wall of Fig.11a, in which there is
uniform energy generation per unit volume (is
constant) and the surfaces are maintained at Ts,1
and Ts,2. For constant thermal conductivity k, the
appropriate form of the heat equation, Eq.3, is
 The general solution for the temperature distribution is

where C1 and C2 are the constants of integration.

By substitution, it may be verified that Eq.43 is
indeed a solution to the heat equation. For the
prescribed boundary conditions shown in Fig.11a
The constants can be evaluated and are of the form

Then the temperature distribution for the asymmetrical

boundary conditions case
The heat flux at any point in the wall may, of course, be
determined by using Eq.44 with Fourier’s law. Note,
however, that with generation the heat flux is no longer
independent of x.
Furthermore, note that the temperature distribution is not
linear, but is a quadratic function of x.

The preceding result simplifies when both surfaces are maintained

at a common temperature, Ts,1 Ts,2 Ts as shown in Fig. b. The
temperature distribution is then symmetrical about the midplane,
and is given by
The maximum temperature exists at the midplane, x = 0

in which case the temperature distribution, Eq. 16.45, may be

expressed alternatively as
It is important to note that at the plane of
symmetry in Fig.11b, the temperature
gradient is zero, (dT/dx)x=0 =0. Accordingly,
there is no heat transfer across this plane,
and it may be represented by the adiabatic
surface shown in Fig.11c. One implication of
this result is that Eq.45 also applies to plane
walls that are perfectly insulated on one side
(x= 0) and maintained at a fixed temperature
Ts on the other side (x= L).
To use the foregoing results, the surface
temperature(s) Ts must be known. However,
a common situation is one for which it is the
temperature of an adjoining fluid, T, and not
Ts, which is known.
It then becomes necessary to relate Ts to T. This
relation may be developed by applying a surface
energy balance. Consider the surface at x = L for the
symmetrical plane wall (Fig.11b) or the insulated
plane wall (Fig.11c). The surface energy balance,
Eq.14, has the form q”cond = q”conv, and substituting the
appropriate rate equations
Substituting from Eq.45 to obtain the temperature
gradient at x = L, it follows that

Hence Ts may be computed from knowledge of T∞, ,L and h.

Equation 16.49 may also be obtained by applying an overall energy
balance to the plane wall of Fig.11b or 11c. For Example… relative
to a control surface about the wall of Fig.11c, the rate at which
energy is generated within the wall must be balanced by the rate at
which energy leaves via convection at the boundary. Equation 11a
reduces to
or, for a unit surface area
In many industrial applications it is desirable to
enhance the rate of heat transfer from a solid
surface to an adjoining fluid. Consider the plane wall
of Fig.13a. If Ts is fixed, the heat transfer rate may
be increased by increasing the fluid velocity, which
has the effect of increasing the convection
coefficient h, and/or by increasing the difference
between the surface and fluid temperatures (Ts - T∞).
However, there are many situations for which these
changes might be insufficient, expensive, and/or
impractical.
Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces: Fins

Fig. 13 to enhance heat transfer from a plane wall.

(a) Bare surface. (b) Finned surface.
Accordingly, another option is shown in Fig.13b. That
is, the heat transfer rate may be increased by
increasing the surface area across which the
convection occurs. This may be accomplished by
employing fins that extend from the wall into the
surrounding fluid. Heat transfer occurs by conduction
within the fin, and by convection from the surfaces of
the fin
You are already familiar with several fin applications, including
arrangements for cooling engine heads on motorcycles and
lawn mowers, or for cooling electrical power transformers.
Consider also the tubes with attached fins used to promote heat
exchange between air and the working fluid of an air conditioner
or heat pump. Two common finned-tube arrangements are
shown in Fig.14.

Figure 14 Schematic of typical finned-tube heat exchangers.

Figure 15 Fin configurations. Straight fins with uniform cross-sectional
area: (a) straight rectangular fin and (b) straight pin fin. (c) Annular fin
with rectangular cross-sectional area.
Fig.15a, and the pin fin with a circular cross section,
Fig.15b. Because of their uniform cross-sectional
geometry, a simple analysis provides an
understanding of the conduction-convection
processes, as well as expressions for the temperature
distribution and fin heat rate.
Second, we will consider the annular fin, Fig.15c,
an extended surface that is circumferentially
attached to a cylinder (tube or pipe). Because the
analysis is much more complicated, we will
introduce design charts that are widely used in
engineering practice to determine fin heat transfer
rates.
In the next section, we will perform a conduction-
convection analysis on the fins of uniform cross
section to obtain the temperature distribution.
Fin Temperature Distribution and Heat Rate
In the preceding section, we applied the
conservation of energy requirement to a differential
element (system) in fins of uniform cross section,
Fig.17a,b, experiencing conduction and convection
processes. We defined the excess temperature as

and identified the fin parameter

where P and Ac are the fin perimeter and cross-
sectional area, respectively. The resulting linear,
second-order differential equation with constant
coefficients has the general solution of the form

where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants. To obtain the

temperature distribution we need to evaluate the
arbitrary constants from two boundary conditions
representative of the fin physical situation.
To demonstrate the approach for obtaining the fin
temperature distribution, consider case A, Fig.17c,
the infinite fin. At x =∞ , the tip temperature must
equal that of the fluid, hence this boundary condition
has the form

For the second boundary condition, we prescribe the

temperature at the base of the fin, T(0) = Tb
Substituting the boundary condition at the fin tip into
the general solution, Eq.66

it follows that C1 = 0. Substituting the boundary condition at the

fin base, x = 0

and with C1 0, it follows that C2 b. Accordingly, the temperature

distribution for the infinite fin is
which is shown schematically in Fig.17d. Note that
the magnitude of the temperature gradient decreases
with increasing x. This trend is a consequence of the
reduction in the conduction heat transfer qx(x) with
increasing x due to continuous convection heat
transfer from the surface.

The fin heat rate may be evaluated in two alternative

ways, both of which involve use of the temperature
distribution. The first involves applying Fourier’s law at
the fin base, x 0, as shown in Fig.18. That is
with Eq.65, the fin heat rate becomes

Conservation of energy dictates that the heat transfer rate by

convection, qconv(x), must equal the heat transfer rate by
conduction through the base of the fin, qf. Accordingly, the
alternative formulation for the fin heat rate, qf, using Newton’s law
of cooling as shown in Fig.19 is
Fin Performance Parameters
Recall that fins are used to increase the heat transfer
rate from a surface by increasing the effective surface
area. However, the fin itself represents a conduction
resistance to heat transfer from the original surface.
For this reason, there is no assurance that the heat
transfer rate will be increased through the use of fins.
An assessment of this matter may be made by
evaluating the fin effectiveness εf , which is defined
as the ratio of the fin heat transfer rate to the heat
transfer rate that would exist without the fin. That is
where Ac is the fin cross-sectional area. Subject to
any one of the four tip conditions, the effectiveness for
a fin of uniform cross section may be obtained by
dividing the appropriate expression for qf in Table 16.4
by hAcθb. In any rational design the value of εf should
be as large as possible, and in general, the use of fins
may rarely be justified unless εf ≥ 2.

Fin performance may also be quantified in terms of a

thermal resistance. Treating the difference between the
base and fluid temperatures as the driving potential, a
fin resistance may be defined as
This result is extremely useful, particularly when
representing a finned surface as a thermal circuit
element. Note that, according to the fin tip condition,
the appropriate expression for qf is obtained from
Table 16.4.
Dividing Eq.76 into the expression for the thermal
resistance due to convection at the exposed base,

and substituting from Eq.75, it follows that

Hence the fin effectiveness may be interpreted as a
ratio of thermal resistances, and to increase εf it is
necessary to reduce the conduction–convection
resistance of the fin. If the fin is to enhance heat
transfer, its resistance must not exceed that of the
exposed base.
Another measure of fin thermal performance is provided by the
fin efficiency ŋf. The maximum driving potential for convection
is the temperature difference between the base (x = 0) and the
fluid, θb = Tb - T∞. Hence the maximum fin heat rate is the rate
that would exist if the entire fin surface were at the base
temperature: qmax = hAf θb where Af is the total surface area of
the fin. However, since any fin is characterized by a finite
conduction resistance, a temperature gradient must exist along
the fin and the above condition is an idealization. A logical
definition of fin efficiency is therefore
Figure 20 Efficiency of annular fins of rectangular cross section
 The End

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