PROPERTIES OF LASER BEAMS

Dr Olivier Allegre
 1. Laser beams are electromagnetic waves

See video in:

https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=BycPkRIutqg

• E (electric), H (magnetic) field vectors perpendicular to each other and

perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
• Both E and H oscillate in space (z) and time (t). Electromagnetic waves
are fully defined by their electric field component.
• Electric field oscillation: E(z, t) = E0 . e i (k.z - k.c.t + φ)
E0 : vector amplitude, k=2π/λ is the wavenumber, c : speed of light, φ : phase angle

• Wavelength l: the shortest distance between two field maximums.

λ .ν = c (λ : wavelength, ν : frequency, c3.108 m/s)
• λ determined by lasing medium (i.e. stimulated emission transitions).

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2. Energy distribution (transverse electromagnetic mode)
c 0 2
• Laser Intensity: power per unit area. W/(cm2) I E
2
E: Electric field; c: speed of light; ε0: dielectric constant in free space.
• Transverse Electromagnetic Mode (TEM):
a) Photons travelling at right angles to the optic axis will not be amplified.
b) Photons travelling along the optical axis will be amplified strongly
c) Photons travelling zigzag between the mirrors will produce complicated patterns
known as transverse electromagnetic mode.
TEMm,n : m and n denotes the numbers of minimums along two perpendicular axis.

TEM00 (uniphase) TEM01 TEM10 TEM11 TEM00 (uniphase) TEM01 TEM10 TEM11

TEM12 TEM02 TEM12 TEM02

• Laser Intensity distribution: I(r, φ) with r: radius from centre,

φ: azimuth angle

Dr Olivier Allegre
 • TEM00 - Gaussian beam is the most desirable beam shape for
most applications where beam focusing is required. Intensity
distribution: 2 r 2

I (r )  I 0  e w2

I0 : maximum intensity of the beam; w: radius of beam; r: distance from the beam axis
I (r )

r
• Advantages of Gaussian beams:
- Intensity distribution maintained during propagation
(same distribution near and far field).
- Constant phase across the entire wave-front.

Dr Olivier Allegre
 • TEM01* - Doughnut mode: is made from an oscillation
between two orthogonal TEM01 modes superimposed. Good for
surface treatment and high quality cutting.

I (r )

Dr Olivier Allegre
 • Modes higher than the first order are called high-order modes.
Intensity distribution of high-order mode vary with distance and
time for real laser.
• Transverse mode affects beam divergence, focus spot size,
beam distribution at focus.
• Examples:
- Low power CO2 lasers often have a Gaussian mode.
- High power CO2 lasers often have a high-order mode.

Dr Olivier Allegre
 3. Beam quality factor M2
• To describe the high-order modes of high-power bTEM 00 W02
breal   2
“real” beams, M2 factor is introduced: M2 M 

• b is a constant called “Raleigh length”

• M2 = 1 for pure Gaussian mode.
• M2 > 1 for other modes (i.e. Rayleigh length is
reduced for high-order modes). TEM00: M2 = 1
• The smaller the M2 (the closer to 1) the better the
beam quality.

TEM01: M2 = 2

TEM10*: M2 = 3
Dr Olivier Allegre
 4. Beam diameter
• Definition of beam diameter for Gaussian mode: diameter at
which the intensity drops to I0 /e2 .
2 r 2

I (r )  I 0  e w2

I0

I0 / e2 r  2 w

r
r 0 rw

• Definition of beam diameter for high-order modes: diameter

within which (1-1/e2) of total power exists (86% of total power).

Dr Olivier Allegre
 • Beam radius for Gaussian mode:
z2
W ( z )  W (1  2 )
2
0
2

b
W0 is called beam waist: it is the smallest radius of laser beam.
W(z) is the beam radius at distance z from the beam waist.
z is the distance from the beam waist along beam axis.
b is called Rayleigh length : W02
b

i.e. longer wavelengths give higher beam divergence.

Dr Olivier Allegre
 • Beam radius for Gaussian mode:
z2
W ( z )  W (1  2 )
2
0
2

b
W0 is called beam waist: it is the smallest radius of laser beam.
W(z) is the beam radius at distance z from the beam waist.
z is the distance from the beam waist along beam axis.
b is called Rayleigh length : W02
b

i.e. longer wavelengths give higher beam divergence.

=b

Dr Olivier Allegre
 5. Beam waist, near-field and far-field
• Concept of beam waist: minimum diameter of a converging laser beam
• When focusing a laser beam, the beam diameter never reaches zero
diameter, even at focal plane
• The optical cavity of a laser is usually designed with curved mirrors so
that the diameter reaches a minimum within the cavity
• The minimum diameter is called beam waist

Dr Olivier Allegre
 5. Beam waist, near-field and far-field
• Concept of beam waist: minimum diameter of a converging laser beam
• When focusing a laser beam, the beam diameter never reaches zero
diameter, even at focal plane
• The optical cavity of a laser is usually designed with curved mirrors so
that the diameter reaches a minimum within the cavity
• The minimum diameter is called beam waist

=b

Dr Olivier Allegre
 5. Beam waist, near-field and far-field
• Concept of beam waist: minimum diameter of a converging laser beam
• When focusing a laser beam, the beam diameter never reaches zero
diameter, even at focal plane
• The optical cavity of a laser is usually designed with curved mirrors so
that the diameter reaches a minimum within the cavity
• The minimum diameter is called beam waist

2 z2
W ( z )  W (1  2 )
2
0
2

 b

=b

Dr Olivier Allegre
 • Near and Far field definitions:

Near Field: z << b W(z)  W0

Far Field: z >> b W(z)  W0 * z / b

Near Field Far Field

Dr Olivier Allegre
 6. Beam divergence
• A laser beam is never perfectly parallel. Divergence angle is the defined
as the angle of opening of laser beam i.e. the radius increase per unit
beam length.

Dr Olivier Allegre
 6. Beam divergence
• A laser beam is never perfectly parallel. Divergence angle is the defined
as the angle of opening of laser beam i.e. the radius increase per unit
beam length.
• In the far field (z>>b) the beam radius is: z
Wff  M2
  W0

• The divergence angle at far field is :   Wff / z

or,
 W0
 M  2

  W0 b

• Thus, divergence angle  is:

- proportional to beam wavelength  and M2
- inversely proportional to the beam waist W0

Dr Olivier Allegre
 7. Power, energy and power density

• Definition: Power = Energy/time = J/s = W

Industrial lasers must maintain the output power to 2%.

• Pulsed lasers produced by pulsed electric discharge or optical

pumping or Q switching or limited relaxation time.

For pulsed lasers:

Average Power = Pulse Energy x frequency
Peak Power = Energy per pulse / pulse duration

Dr Olivier Allegre
 P
Power density: beam power/beam spot area [W/cm2] F
A
F: power density (W/cm2)
P: laser power
A: beam cross sectional area
4 P
For circular spot size of diameter D: F
  D2
e.g.
For a 1 kW laser beam having a beam diameter at focus D=0.1mm, find the
power density at focus:

P 4P 4  1000W
F    1. 27  10 7
W / cm 2

R 2 D 2 3.14  ( 0. 01cm) 2

Dr Olivier Allegre
 8. Polarisation
Polarization is defined from the orientation of E field vector.

• Linear polarisation: direction of E oscillation is in one

direction and is not changing with time.

- If the beam polarisation is parallel to the surface

normal, it is P-polarised.

- If the beam polarisation is perpendicular ( German:

senkrekt) to the surface norm, it is S-polarised.

- For metallic surfaces, reflection from S-polarised beam is

higher than from P-polarised beam.

• Circular polarisation: direction of E oscillation rotates

circularly with constant angular velocity, amplitude
remains constant.

Dr Olivier Allegre
 8. Polarisation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fu-aYnRkUgg

Dr Olivier Allegre
 LASER OPTICS AND BEAM MANIPULATION

Dr Olivier Allegre
 1. Beam Manipulation Optics

Axicon lens Torric mirror

For processing internal

surfaces of pipes
Cassegranian lens
Produces annular intensity
distribution at focal plane

Dr Olivier Allegre
 1.1. Focusing lenses

Lenses are used for lower power densities < 10 kW/cm 2

• Singlet: Lens that consists of a single piece.

Plano-convex spherical single lens has single positive focal length,

converging incident light, forming real images.

Meniscus lens: One surface convex and one surface concave. Cancelling
some of spherical distortions.

Dr Olivier Allegre
 • Doublet (Achromat): Two lens (one positive, one negative of
differing refractive index) cemented together to cancel the
spherical aberration.

Dr Olivier Allegre
 Material used to make lenses:

• Requirement: high transparency, thermally stable

• Far infrared: - for CO2, CO lasers.

Germanium (Ge) - transmissive 1.8-14m, up to 100 W
Zinc-Selenide (ZnSe) - transmissive 0.58-22m, high power, good stability. Enables HeNe
beam going through for alignment. Used most widely for CO 2 laser. Focal lens etc.
Gallium-Arsenide (GaAs) - transmissive 1.0-15 m. (used for laser output windows)
Potassium Chloride (KCl) - transmissive from visible to far IR. up to 2 kW. Lowest
cost. Sensitive to moisture. Used for CO2 laser lenses.

• Visible to near infrared : - for YAG laser, diode laser etc.

Glass or Borosilicate crown glass (BK-7), transmissive 0.4-1.4 µm.

• Ultraviolet: for Excimer laser.

Quartz, synthetic fused silica (UVGSFS) - transmissive 0.18 - 2 µm.
Sapphire (0.2-3 µm)
Dr Olivier Allegre
 1.2. Focussing mirrors

Focusing mirrors are used for highest laser power densities > 10 kW/cm 2

• Parabolic mirror:
-Good optical properties
-Expensive

• Spherical mirror:
-Produce more distortions (lower accuracy)
-Cheaper than parabolic mirrors

Dr Olivier Allegre
 Materials used to make mirrors

Requirement: High reflectivity, high thermal conductivity and low thermal

expansion coefficient.

Cu with Ag or Gold coating: 99.4% reflection to infrared beams. High thermal

conductivity. Used most for CO2 laser beam

Si with Ag coating: 98.9% reflection to infrared beams. High thermal stability and low
weight.

Mo with Ag coating: 98.9% reflection to infrared beams. Durable and rugged.

Dr Olivier Allegre
 1.3. Collimator

• A collimator is a beam expander increases beam

diameter
• Reduces power density [J/cm2]
• Reduces beam divergence
• Improves focusability (reduces focused spot size)

• A collimator is made of two lenses:

D2 = f2/f1 D1

Galilean type Keplerian type

Dr Olivier Allegre
 1.4. Beam scanning

• x-y scanner (scanning galvanometer):

Uses a pair of mirrors mounted on galvo motors

• Polygon scanner (very high speed applications):

For x-y scanning pattern, one axis is scanned with a
standard galvo-mounted mirror the other axis scanned
with a polygon mirror
Fast axis

Slow axis

Dr Olivier Allegre
 1.5. Circular polariser (depolariser)

To convert linearly polarised beam into circular polarised

beam.

• Reflective type (for high power applications): l/4

dielectric coating on a flat mirror so that p-polarized
component (reflected from the mirror face) is λ/4 out of
phase with s-polarized component (reflected from the
coating).

• Transmissive type (for low power applications):

the laser beam is transmitted through a birefringent
material, which induces a λ/4 phase shift between
horizontal and vertical components of polarization

Dr Olivier Allegre
 1.6. Optical fibre

Principle:
• Cladding has lower refractive index than core, thus total internal reflection of light
occurs: the light is guided within the core of the fibre
• 0.3-1mm core diameter for up to 2kW laser (0.4-1.2µm wavelength) up 100
meters.
• Power loss at entrance and exit: 5-10%
• After fibre transmission focal spot size is generally limited by the fibre core
diameter. Cladding
Core

Step index (single mode)

Graded index (multi-mode)

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2. Focusing properties (lens and mirror)

2.1. Laser focused spot diameter:

• Diffraction limited spot diameter: f

(minimum possible spot size) d min  2. 44
D

4 M 2 f
• Minimum laser spot diameter for focused laser beam: d min 
D
where
dmin : diffraction limited spot diameter (focused beam diameter)
f: focal length of the lens
D: beam diameter incident on the lens

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2.2. F-number (focal number): Fn = f / D

Example:
A Gaussian laser beam (i.e. M2 =1) of 0.6 m wavelength with a
beam diameter of 1cm is focused with a lens which has a focal
length f = 5 cm.
• F number: Fn=5
• Focal spot size (1/e2 diameter): dmin= 4M2 f λ /(πD)=4Fnλ/π
dmin will be around 3.82 m (i.e. 4*5*0.6 m /).

Note:
How to increase power density F [W/cm2] without increasing
incident beam power P ? 4 P
F
  d min
2

Dr Olivier Allegre
 2.2. F-number (focal number): Fn = f / D

Example:
A Gaussian laser beam (i.e. M2 =1) of 0.6 m wavelength with a
beam diameter of 1cm is focused with a lens which has a focal
length f = 5 cm.
• F number: Fn=5
• Focal spot size (1/e2 diameter): dmin= 4M2 f λ /(πD)=4Fnλ/π
dmin will be around 3.82 m (i.e. 4*5*0.6 m /).

Note:
How to increase power density F [W/cm2] without increasing
incident beam power P ? 4 P
F
  d min
2

By reducing focal spot size dmin, power density can be increased.

dmin can be decreased by increasing incident beam diameter D, or
reducing focal length f
Dr Olivier Allegre
 2.3. Depth of focus: The length along the beam axis above and below
the focal point under which the focal spot size changes by 5%.

zf = 1.48Fn2 l

2.4. Defocused beam spot size:

dD
Ds 
f

Dr Olivier Allegre