Manufacturing Processes - II

Dr Gordhan Das Valasai

03
Revision
• Chip Formation
• Theory of Chip Formation
• Types of Chip
• Discontinuous Chip
• Continuous Chip
• Chip Curl
• Chip Breaker
• Prevention of Build-up Edge Chip Formation
Cutting Tools
Cutting Tools
• Cutting tools are tools used to remove material from a workpiece
in the form of chips, in a wide range of manufacturing and
machining processes, such as drilling, milling, turning, and
grinding. Selection of cutting tools is crucial to efficiency and
quality of the machining process.
• Cutting tool is a wedge shaped and sharp edged device that is
used to remove excess layer of material from the workpiece by
shearing during machining in order to obtain desired shape, size
and accuracy.
• It is rigidly mounted on machine tool. A relative velocity between
workpiece and cutting tool is also provided by various mechanical
Classification of Cutting Tools
• Single Point Cutting Tools
• These tools have only one cutting edge ; such as lathe tools, shaper
tools, planer tools, boring tools, etc.
• Multi-point Cutting Tools
1. Solid tool.
2. Brazed tool.
3. Inserted bit tool.
• These tools have more than one cutting edges ; such as milling cutters,
drills, broaches, grinding wheels, etc.
Cutting Tool - Elements
Shank: It is main body of tool at one end of which
cutting portion is formed.
Flank: Surface below and adjacent to cutting edge is
called flank of tool.
Face: Surface on which chip slides is called face of
tool.
Heel: It is intersection of the flank and base of tool.
Nose: It is point where side cutting edge and end
cutting edge intersect.
Neck: Portion which is reduced in section to form
necessary cutting edges and angles is called neck.
Cutting edge: It is the edge on face of tool which
removes the material from workpiece.
 Examples of Cutting Tools
Cutting tool is basically the cutter used in machining operation. Various machining operations utilize
different cutters and thus various names are available for these cutters based on the application.

A list of commonly used cutting tools is provided below.

Single point turning tool: cutter for turning in lathe

Drill: cutter for drilling on drilling machine or lathe or milling machine
Milling cutter (or mill): cutter for milling operations performed on milling machine
Fly cutter: cutter for fly milling in milling machine
Shaper: cutter for shaping in shaping machine
Planer: cutter for planing in planing machine
Boring bar: cutter for boring in drilling or boring machine
Reamer: cutter for reaming in drilling machine
Broach: cutter for broaching in broaching machine
Hob: cutter for hobbing in hobbing machine
Assignment
1. What are Force Relationships and derive
Merchant’s Equation (Merchant’s Circle Diagram).
2. In a turning operation on stainless steel with , , ,
and How much power will lathe draw in
performing this operation if its . Use Table
(above) to obtain the appropriate specific energy
value.
3. Determine cutting power and specific energy in
the machining operation if . Summarizing the
data and results from previous examples, to =
0.50 mm, w = 3.0 mm, Fc = 1557 N.
Surface Finish
The machining processes generate a wide variety of surface
textures. Surface texture consists of the repetitive and/or random
deviations from the ideal smooth surface.
These deviations are
• Roughness: small, finely spaced surface irregularities (micro
irregularities)
• Waviness: surface irregularities of grater spacing (macro
irregularities)
• Lay: predominant direction of surface texture
Surface Finish
Surface Finish
Three main factors make the surface roughness the most
important of these parameters:
• Fatigue life: service life of a component under cyclic stress
(fatigue life) is much shorter if the surface roughness is high
• Bearing properties: a perfectly smooth surface is not a good
bearing because it cannot maintain a lubricating film.
• Wear: high surface roughness will result in more intensive
surface wear in friction.
Surface finish is evaluated quantitatively by the average
roughness height, .
Surface Finish Symbols
Roughness Control
Factors, influencing surface roughness in machining are
• Tool geometry (major cutting edge angle and tool corner radius),
• Cutting conditions (cutting velocity, depth of cut and feed), and
• Work material properties (hardness).
Feed marks: During cutting with a single point cutting tool (e.g. turning), tool leaves a spiral
profile on machined surface as it moves across work piece, so called feed marks. Height of
feed marks is nothing but the surface roughness height and can be assumed equal to Ra.
Influence of the other process parameters is outlined below:
• Increasing the tool rake angle generally improves surface finish
• Higher work material hardness results in better surface finish
• Tool material has minor effect on surface finish.
• Cutting fluids affect the surface finish changing cutting temperature and as a result the
built-up edge formation
Machinability
• It is a term indicating how work material responds to cutting process.
• Criteria to evaluate machinability:
1. tool life Machinability characteristics of a
material depends on:
2. forces and power •Physical property.
•Chemical properties.
3. surface finish •Mechanical properties.
•Cutting conditions.
4. ease of chip disposal •Microstructure.

5. low cost
• Type of machining operation, tooling, and cutting conditions are also
important factors. A closer definition of machinability requires that some
quantitative judgments be made. Several possibilities are available, but
in practice so called machinability index is often quoted.
Machinability
The machinability index KM is defined by

V60 is cutting speed for target material that ensures tool life of 60 min,
V60R is same for the reference material. Reference materials are
selected for each group of work materials (ferrous and non-ferrous)
among the most popular and widely used brands.

If KM is greater than 1, machinability of target material is better that this of

reference material, and vice versa. Note that this system can be misleading
because the index is different for different machining processes.
Example: Machinability rating
Reference material for steels, AISI 1112 steel has an index of 1.
For a tool life of 60 min, the AISI 1045 steel should be machined
at 0.36 m/s.
Hence, the machinability index for this steel is,

This index is smaller than 1, therefore, AISI 1045 steel has a

worse workability than AISI 1112
Machinability of different materials
Leaded steels: lead acts as a solid lubricant in cutting to improve considerably
machinability.
Resulphurized steels: sulphur forms inclusions that act as stress raisers in the chip
formation zone thus increasing machinability.
Difficult-to-cut steels: a group of steels of low machinability, such as stainless steels,
high manganese steels, precipitation-hardening steels.
Aluminum: easy-to-cut material except for some cast aluminum alloys with silicon
content that may be abrasive.
Cast iron: gray cast iron is generally easy-to-cut material, but some modifications and
alloys are abrasive or very hard and may cause various problems in cutting.
Copper-based alloys: easy to machine metals. Bronzes are more difficult to machine
than brass.
Improving Machinability Of Work Materials

Machinability of work materials can be more or less improved, without sacrificing

productivity, by:
 Favourable change in composition, microstructure and mechanical properties
by mixing suitable type and amount of additive(s) in the work material and
appropriate heat treatment
 Proper selection and use of cutting tool material and geometry depending
upon the work material and the significant machinability criteria under
consideration
 Proper selection and appropriate method of application of cutting fluid
depending upon the tool – work materials, desired levels of productivity
 Proper selection and application of special techniques like dynamic
machining, hot machining etc, if feasible, economically viable and eco-
friendly.