EC301

COMPUTER NETWORK
FUNDAMENTALS
THE OPEN SYSTEMS
INTERCONNECTION (OSI) MODEL
AND NETWORK PROTOCOLS

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 Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI)
• No one really uses this in the real world.
• A reference model so others can develop
detailed interfaces.
• Value: The reference model defines 7 layers of
functions that take place at each end of
communication and with each layer adding its
own set of special related functions.
• Flow of data through each layer at one

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 ISO/OSI Reference Model (2)
File Transfer, Email, Remote Login 

ASCII Text, Sound (syntax layer) 

Establish/manage connection 
End-to-end control & error checking
(ensure complete data transfer): TCP 

Routing and Forwarding Address: IP 

Two party communication: Ethernet 

How to transmit signal; coding

Hardware means of sending and 
receiving data on a carrier 3
 Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI)
OSI divides telecommunication into seven
layers.
The layers are in two groups.
The upper four layers are used whenever a
message passes from or to a user.
The lowest three layers (Up to network
layer) are used when any message passes
through the host computer.

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 Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI)
 Message intended for this computer pass to the upper

layers.
 Message destined for some other host are not passed

up to the upper layers but are forwarded to another

host.
 Physical layer: Bit stream through network at

electrical/mechanical level

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 The seven OSI layers are defines as follows
(Feig)1:

7. Application: Provides different services to the application

6. Presentation: Converts the information

5. Session: Handles problems which are not communication issues

4. Transport: Provides end to end communication control

3. Network: Routes the information in the network

2. Data Link: Provides error control

1. Physical: Connects the entity to the transmission media

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 OSI layers
The application, presentation, and session

layers comprise the upper layers of the OSI

Model.
Software in these layers performs
application specific functions like data
formatting, encryption, and connection
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management.
 OSI layers
The transport, network, data link, and

physical layers comprise the lower

layers, which provide more primitive
network specific functions like routing,
addressing, and flow controls.

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 9

Application Layer
• The application layer is the top layer of the OSI
model.
• It provides a set of interfaces for applications to
obtain access to networked services as well as
access to network services that support
applications directly.
 10

The Application Layer provides the following

functions:

• File Transfer, Access and Management

(FTAM): Provides handling services in the
network. This includes the movement of files
between different systems, reading, writing and
deletion of remote files, and management of
remote file storage.
 11

The Application Layer provides the

following functions:
• Virtual Terminal (VT): Provides services to
access applications in different remote computer
systems through stimulating a real terminal.
• Electronic Mail and Messaging Handling (MHS):
Facilitates the electronic exchange of documents.
 12

The Application Layer provides the

following functions
• Directory Services (DS): Provides services with
the ability to match names with addressing
information.
• Common management Information Protocol
(CMIP): Provides services for network
management.
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is responsible for the

format of the data transferred during network

communications.
This layer is concerned with the syntax and

semantics of the information transmitted.

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Presentation Layer
For outgoing messages, it converts data into a generic
format for the transmission.
For the incoming messages, it converts the data from
the generic form to a format understandable to the
receiving application.
Different computers have different codes for
representing data.
The presentation layer makes it possible for computers
with different representation to communicate.

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Presentation Layer
 The presentation layer provides common communication

services such as encryption, text compression, and reformatting.

 The presentation layer is also concerned with other aspects of

information representation.
 Data compression can be used to reduce the number of bits that

have to be transmitted.
 Cryptography is frequently required for privacy and
authentication.
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SESSION LAYER
 The session layer handles session setup, data or message
exchanges, and tear down when the session ends.
 It also monitors session identification so only designated
parties can participate and security services to control
access to session information.
 A session can be used to allow a user to log into a
remote time-sharing system or transfer a file between
two machines.

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SESSION LAYER
The session layer permits two parties to
hold ongoing communications called a
session across a network.
The applications on either end of the
session can exchange data or send packets
to another for as long as the session lasts.

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SESSION LAYER
 The session layer has the option of providing one-or-
two-way communication called dialogue control.
 Sessions can allow traffic to go in both directions at
the same time, or in only one direction at a time.
 Token management may be used to prevent both
sides from attempting the same operation at the same
time.

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SESSION LAYER
Another session service is
synchronization.
Consider the problems that occur when
transferring a file between two machines
and the system crashes not being able to
complete the transfer.

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SESSION LAYER
This process must be restarted from the
beginning.
To avoid this problem, the session layer
provides a way to insert checkpoints into the
data stream, so that after a crash, only the
data after the last checkpoint has to be
repeated.
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TRANSPORT LAYER
 The basic function of the transport layer is to
accept data from the session layer, split it up
into smaller units, pass it to the network
layer, and ensure that the bits delivered are
the same as the bits transmitted without
modification, loss or duplication.

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TRANSPORT LAYER
 If an error occurs during transmission, the
transport layer must correct it.
 There is a set of rules to follow that detail the
handling of the error and how to correct it.
 The correction may mean re-sending just the
damaged data or restarting from the
beginning.

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TRANSPORT LAYER
 The transport protocol can also mark packets
with sequencing information so that the
destination system can properly order the
packets if they are received out of order.

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 NETWORK LAYER
The network layer controls the operation of a sub-

net, provides routing, congestion control and

accounting.
The network layer provides both connectionless

and connection-oriented services.

A key design issue is determining how packets are

routed from source to destination.

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 NETWORK LAYER
The IP protocol resides in this layer.

All routers in the network are operating at this

level.
If too many packets are present in the sub-net at

the same time, bottlenecks will form.

The network layer helps to control this congestion.

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 NETWORK LAYER
Controls over network connections, logical
channels, segmenting and sequencing, and data
flow can be placed in this layer.

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 27

DATA LINK LAYER

• The main task of the data link layer is to take a raw
transmission and transform it into a line that appears
free of transmission errors in the network layer.
• It accomplishes this task by having the sender break
the input data up into data frames, transmit the
frames sequentially, and process the acknowledgment
frames sent back by the receiver.
 28

DATA LINK LAYER

• The protocol packages the data into frames that
contain source and destination addresses.
• These frames refer to the physical hardware
address of each network card attached to the
network cable.
• Ethernet, Token Ring, and ARCnet are examples
of LAN data link protocols.
 29

DATA LINK LAYER

• Encryption can be used to protect the message as
it flows between each network node.
• Each node then decrypts the message received
and re-encrypts it for transmission to the next
node.
PHYSICAL LAYER

 The physical layer is concerned with transmitting

raw bits over a communication channel.
 The design issues have to do with making sure
that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is received by
the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.

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PHYSICAL LAYER

 The physical layer describes some type of cabling

system as the transmission media.
 It also describes the network topology and how
the transmission media is to be distributed.
 Some examples include the bus, star, and ring
topologies.
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Communication between systems

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33
 Protocol
• The term “protocol” has many meanings; in
the context of the OSI Reference Model, it
refers specifically to software or hardware
elements that accomplish communication
between corresponding layers on two or more
devices.
• For example, the Internet Protocol is said to
be a layer 3 protocol because each device uses
IP software to communicate at layer 3.
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 Protocol
• The actual transmission and reception of data
only occurs at the lowest, physical layer;
higher-layer protocols communicate logically,
by passing data down interfaces until it
reaches layer 1, transmitting at layer 1, and
then passing the data back up to the
appropriate layer at the recipient.

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 Protocol
• Protocols are what describe the rules that control
horizontal communication, that is, conversations
between processes that run at corresponding
layers within the OSI Reference Model.
• At every layer (except layer one) these
communications ultimately take the form of some
sort of message that is sent between
corresponding software elements on two or more
devices.

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 Protocol
• Since these messages are the mechanism for
communicating information between
protocols, they are most generally called
protocol data units (PDUs).
• Each PDU has a specific format that
implements the features and requirements of
the protocol.

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38
 Data Packet
• A packet is a basic unit of communication over
a digital network.
• A packet is also called a datagram, a segment,
a block, a cell or a frame, depending on the
protocol.
• When data has to be transmitted, it is broken
down into similar structures of data, which are
reassembled to the original data chunk once
they reach their destination.
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 Explain the structure and purpose of data
packets and frames.
• It turns out that everything you do on the
Internet involves packets.
• For example, every Web page that you receive
comes as a series of packets, and every e-mail
you send leaves as a series of packets.
Networks that ship data around in small
packets are called packet switched networks.

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 Data Packets and Frames
• On the Internet, the network breaks an e-mail
message into parts of a certain size in bytes.
• These are the packets.
• Each packet carries the information that will
help it get to its destination -- the sender's
IP address, the intended receiver's IP address,
something that tells the network how many
packets this e-mail message has been broken
into and the number of this particular packet.
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 Data Packets and Frames
• The packets carry the data in the protocols
that the Internet uses: Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
• Each packet contains part of the body of your
message.
• A typical packet contains perhaps 1,000 or
1,500 bytes.

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 Packets and protocols
• Packets vary in structure depending on the
protocols implementing them.
• VoIP uses the IP protocol, and hence IP
packets.
• On an Ethernet network, for example, data is
transmitted in Ethernet frames.

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 Structure
• The structure of a packet depends on the type of packet it is and on
the protocol.
• Normally, a packet has a header and a payload.
• The header keeps overhead information about the packet, the
service and other transmission-related things.
• For example, an IP packet includes:
– The source IP address
– The destination IP address
– The sequence number of the packets
– The type of service
– Flags
– Etc
– The payload is the data it carries.
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 Protocol
• There are rules governing how data is
transferred over networks, how they are
compressed, how they are presented on the
screen and so on.
• These set of rules are called protocols.

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 Protocol
• There are many protocols, each one governing
the way a certain technology works.
• For example, the IP protocol defines a set of
rules governing the way computers use IP
packets to send data over the Internet or any
other IP-based network.

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 Protocol
• It also defines addressing in IP. Likewise, we have other
protocols like:
– TCP: Transmission Control Protocol, used for the reliable
transmission of data over a network.
– HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol, used for transmitting and
displaying information in the form of web pages on browsers.
– FTP: File Transfer Protocol, used for file transfer (uploading
and downloading) over the Internet
– SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, used for email
– Ethernet: Used for data transmission over a LAN.
– Wi-Fi: One of the wireless protocols.

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 MAC Address
• Every computer on an Ethernet local network
has a Media Access Control (MAC) address
that is burned into the Network Interface Card
(NIC).
• Computer MAC addresses are usually
displayed as 6 sets of two hexadecimal
numbers separated by dashes or colons.
(example: 15-EF-A3-45-9B-57).

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 MAC Address
• MAC is an acronym and stands for Media Access
Control.
• The MAC address (also known as the physical
address) is your computer's unique hardware number.
• When you're connected to the Internet from your
computer (or the "host"), a correspondence table
relates your IP address to your computer's physical
(MAC) address on the LAN.
• This is how the router knows where to send IP
packets destined for your system.
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 TCP/IP
• TCP/IP is the communication protocol for the
Internet.
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – uses a
set of rules to exchange messages with other
Internet points at the information packet level
• Internet Protocol (IP) – uses a set of rules to
send and receive messages at the Internet
address level

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OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Model Layers

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 What is TCP/IP?
• TCP/IP is the communication protocol for
communication between computers on the
Internet.
• TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control
Protocol / Internet Protocol.
• TCP/IP defines how electronic devices (like
computers) should be connected to the
Internet, and how data should be transmitted
between them.
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 Inside TCP/IP
• Inside the TCP/IP standard there are several
protocols for handling data communication:
– TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) communication
between applications
– UDP (User Datagram Protocol) simple communication
between applications
– IP (Internet Protocol) communication between computers
– ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) for errors and
statistics
– DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) for dynamic
addressing
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 TCP Uses a Fixed Connection
• TCP is for communication between
applications.
• If one application wants to communicate with
another via TCP, it sends a communication
request.
• This request must be sent to an exact address.
• After a "handshake" between the two
applications, TCP will set up a "full-duplex"
communication between the two applications.
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 TCP Uses a Fixed Connection
• The "full-duplex" communication will occupy
the communication line between the two
computers until it is closed by one of the two
applications.
• UDP is very similar to TCP, but simpler and less
reliable.

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 IP is Connection-Less
• IP is for communication between computers.
• IP is a "connection-less" communication
protocol.
• IP does not occupy the communication line
between two computers.

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 IP is Connection-Less
• IP reduces the need for network lines.
• Each line can be used for communication
between many different computers at the
same time.

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 IP is Connection-Less
• With IP, messages (or other data) are broken
up into small independent "packets" and sent
between computers via the Internet.
• IP is responsible for "routing" each packet to
the correct destination.

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 TCP/IP
• Application Layer: contains the logic needed to
support the various user applications.
Separate module are required for each
application.
• Host-to-host or transport Layer: collection of
mechanisms in a single and common layer

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 TCP/IP
• Internet Layer: IP provides the routing
functions across the multiple networks
• Network access layer: concerned with access
to and routing data across a network for two
end systems attached to the same network.
• Physical Layer: covers physical interface
between PC or workstation and a transmission
medium or network

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 IP Routers
• When an IP packet is sent from a computer, it arrives
at an IP router.
• The IP router is responsible for "routing" the packet
to the correct destination, directly or via another
router.
• The path the packet will follow might be different
from other packets of the same communication.
• The router is responsible for the right addressing,
depending on traffic volume, errors in the network,
or other parameters.
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 Connection-Less Analogy
• Communicating via IP is like sending a long
letter as a large number of small postcards,
each finding its own (often different) way to
the receiver.

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2.3.1 Identify the characteristics of the various networking protocol
suites:
1. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
2. Internetwork Packet Exchange/ Sequenced Packet
3. Exchange (IPX/SPX)
4. NetBIOS and NetBEUI
5. AppleTalk

UNDERSTAND THE IMPORTANCE OF

NETWORK PROTOCOLS

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 TCP/IP
• TCP/IP is TCP and IP working together.
• TCP takes care of the communication between your
application software (i.e. your browser) and your
network software.
• IP takes care of the communication with other
computers.
• TCP is responsible for breaking data down into IP
packets before they are sent, and for assembling the
packets when they arrive.
• IP is responsible for sending the packets to the
correct destination.
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 IPX/SPX (Internetwork Packet
Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange)
• Currently, a number of other network
operating systems, including Windows NT,
include IPX protocol stacks.
• The protocol is an easy-to-configure
internetworking protocol, suitable for small
networks, and it provides compatibility with
legacy Novell NetWare networks.
• A number of network clients also support the
protocol, including Microsoft Windows.
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 IPX SPX Protocol Suite
• IPX/SPX is a protocol suite that highly
prevalent and implemented on many
corporate internetworks.
• Basically, IPX/SPX was developed to operate in
Novell Netware in LAN environment.
• But today, the IPX/SPX is also used in
Microsoft NT, Microsoft XP and Lotus Notes
environment along with Vista.

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 IPX SPX Protocol Suite
• IPX provides datagram services over packet-
switched internetworks.
• Its basic operation is similar to IP (Internet
Protocol), but its addressing scheme, packet
structure, and general scope are different.

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 IPX SPX Protocol Suite
• The other member of the Novell NetWare protocol
suite is SPX (Sequenced Packet Exchange), which
resides in the transport layer.
• When compared to the TCP/IP protocol suite, IPX
provides routing and internetwork services similar to
IP, and SPX provides transport layer services similar
to TCP.
• IPX and IP are connectionless datagram protocols,
while SPX and TCP are connection-oriented
protocols.
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 IPX SPX Protocol Suite
• IPX addresses include a network address and a
node address.
• Network addresses are assigned when setting
up the primary server on a NetWare LAN.
• The node address is the hardwired address on
a network interface card.

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 IPX SPX Protocol Suite
• A complete IPX address is a 12-byte
hexadecimal number that may look similar to
the following, where the first part is the
network address and the second part is the
hardwired node address:
4A87B321 14594EA221AE 0119

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 NetBIOS (Network Basic
Input/output System)
• NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/output System)
is a program that allows applications on
different computers to communicate within a
local area network (LAN).
• It was created by IBM for its early PC Network,
was adopted by Microsoft, and has since
become a de facto industry standard.

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 NetBIOS (Network Basic
Input/output System)
• NetBIOS is used in Ethernet and Token Ring
networks and, included as part of NetBIOS
Extended User Interface (NetBEUI), in recent
Microsoft Windows operating systems.
• It does not in itself support a routing
mechanism so applications communicating on
a Wide Area Network (WAN) must use
another "transport mechanism" (such as
Transmission Control Protocol) rather than or
in addition to NetBIOS. 72
 NetBIOS (Network Basic
Input/output System)
• NetBIOS provides the Session and Transport
services described in the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model.
• However, it does not provide a standard frame
or data format for transmission.
• A standard frame format is provided by
NetBEUI.

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 NetBIOS (Network Basic
Input/output System)
• NetBIOS provides two communication modes:
1. session or
2. datagram.
• Session mode lets two computers establish a
connection for a "conversation," allows larger
messages to be handled, and provides error
detection and recovery.

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 NetBIOS (Network Basic
Input/output System)
• Datagram mode is "connectionless" (each
message is sent independently), messages
must be smaller, and the application is
responsible for error detection and recovery.
• Datagram mode also supports the broadcast
of a message to every computer on the LAN.

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 NetBEUI (Net Bios Extended User Interface)

• NetBEUI (Net Bios Extended User Interface)

• An enhanced version of NetBIOS.
• It provides services related to the Session
layer of the OSI model allowing applications
on separate computers to communicate over a
local area network.
• NetBEUI is the best performance choice for
communication within a single LAN.

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 NetBEUI (Net Bios Extended User
Interface)
• As strictly an API (Application Programming
Interface), NetBIOS is not a networking
protocol.
• Older operating systems ran NetBIOS over
IEEE 802.2 and IPX/SPX using the NetBIOS
Frames (NBF) and NetBIOS over IPX/SPX (NBX)
protocols, respectively.

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 NetBEUI (Net Bios Extended User
Interface)
• In modern networks, NetBIOS normally runs
over TCP/IP via the NetBIOS over TCP/IP (NBT)
protocol.
• This results in each computer in the network
having both an IP address and a NetBIOS
name corresponding to a (possibly different)
host name.

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 AppleTalk
• AppleTalk is a set of local area network
communication protocols originally created for Apple
computers.
• An AppleTalk network can support up to 32 devices
and data can be exchanged at a speed of 230.4
kilobits per second (Kbps).
• Devices can be as much as 1,000 feet apart.
• AppleTalk's Datagram Delivery Protocol corresponds
closely to the Network layer of the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) communication model.
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Explain the functions of the core protocols of TCP/IP suite.

UNDERSTAND THE IMPORTANCE OF

NETWORK PROTOCOLS

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 The core protocols of TCP/IP suite
• TCP - Transmission Control Protocol
– TCP is used for transmission of data from an
application to the network.
– TCP is responsible for breaking data down into IP
packets before they are sent, and for assembling
the packets when they arrive.

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 The core protocols of TCP/IP suite
• IP - Internet Protocol
– IP takes care of the communication with other computers.
– IP is responsible for the sending and receiving data packets
over the Internet.
• HTTP - Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
– HTTP takes care of the communication between a web
server and a web browser.
– HTTP is used for sending requests from a web client (a
browser) to a web server, returning web content (web
pages) from the server back to the client.

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 The core protocols of TCP/IP suite
• HTTPS - Secure HTTP
– HTTPS takes care of secure communication
between a web server and a web browser.
– HTTPS typically handles credit card transactions
and other sensitive data.
• SSL - Secure Sockets Layer
– The SSL protocol is used for encryption of data for
secure data transmission.

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 The core protocols of TCP/IP suite
• SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
– SMTP is used for transmission of e-mails.
• MIME - Multi-purpose Internet Mail
Extensions
– The MIME protocol lets SMTP transmit multimedia
files including voice, audio, and binary data across
TCP/IP networks.

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 The core protocols of TCP/IP suite
• IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol
– IMAP is used for storing and retrieving e-mails.
• POP - Post Office Protocol
– POP is used for downloading e-mails from an e-
mail server to a personal computer.
• FTP - File Transfer Protocol
– FTP takes care of transmission of files between
computers.

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 The core protocols of TCP/IP suite
• NTP - Network Time Protocol
– NTP is used to synchronize the time (the clock)
between computers.
• DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
– DHCP is used for allocation of dynamic IP
addresses to computers in a network.
• SNMP - Simple Network Management
Protocol
– SNMP is used for administration of computer
networks. 86
 The core protocols of TCP/IP suite
• LDAP - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
– LDAP is used for collecting information about
users and e-mail addresses from the internet.
• ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol
– ICMP takes care of error-handling in the network.
• ARP - Address Resolution Protocol
– ARP is used by IP to find the hardware address of a
computer network card based on the IP address.

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 The core protocols of TCP/IP suite
• RARP - Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
– RARP is used by IP to find the IP address based on
the hardware address of a computer network
card.
• BOOTP - Boot Protocol
– BOOTP is used for booting (starting) computers
from the network.
• PPTP - Point to Point Tunneling Protocol
– PPTP is used for setting up a connection (tunnel)
between private networks.
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UNDERSTAND ADDRESSING
SCHEMES FOR TCP/IP SUITE

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 TCP/IP Addressing

• TCP/IP uses 32 bits, or four numbers between

0 and 255, to address a computer.

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 IP Addresses

• Each computer must have an IP address

before it can connect to the Internet.
• Each IP packet must have an address before it
can be sent to another computer.
• This is an IP address: 192.68.20.50
This might be the same IP address:
www.w3schools.com

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An IP Address Contains 4 Numbers
• Each computer must have a unique IP address.
• This is your IP address: 203.82.87.102
• TCP/IP uses four numbers to address a
computer. The numbers are always between 0
and 255.
• IP addresses are normally written as four
numbers separated by a period, like this:
192.168.1.50.

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 32 Bits = 4 Bytes
• In computer terms, TCP/IP uses 32 bits addressing.
One byte is 8 bits. TCP/IP uses 4 bytes.
• One byte can contain 256 different values:
– 00000000, 00000001, 00000010, 00000011, 00000100,
00000101, 00000110, 00000111, 00001000 .......and all the
way up to 11111111.
• Now you know why a TCP/IP address is four numbers
between 0 and 255.

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 Domain Names
• A name is much easier to remember than a 12
digit number.
• Names used for TCP/IP addresses are called
domain names.
• w3schools.com is a domain name.
• When you address a web site, like
http://www.w3schools.com, the name is
translated to a number by a Domain Name
Server (DNS).
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 Domain Names
• All over the world, DNS servers are connected
to the Internet.
• DNS servers are responsible for translating
domain names into TCP/IP addresses.
• When a new domain name is registered
together with a TCP/IP address, DNS servers
all over the world are updated with this
information.

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 IP Addressing Scheme
• IP addresses are normally expressed in dotted-
decimal format, with four numbers separated
by periods, such as 192.168.123.132.
• To understand how subnet masks are used to
distinguish between hosts, networks, and
subnetworks, examine an IP address in binary
notation.

96
 IP Addressing Scheme
• For example, the dotted-decimal IP address
192.168.123.132 is (in binary notation) the 32
bit number
110000000101000111101110000100.
• This number may be hard to make sense of, so
divide it into four parts of eight binary digits.

97
 IP Addressing Scheme
• These eight bit sections are known as octets.
• The example IP address, then, becomes
11000000.10101000.01111011.10000100.
• This number only makes a little more sense, so for
most uses, convert the binary address into dotted-
decimal format (192.168.123.132).
• The decimal numbers separated by periods are the
octets converted from binary to decimal notation.

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 IP Addressing Scheme

• An IP address has two parts.

• The first part of an IP address is used as a

network address, the last part as a host
address.

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 IP Addressing Scheme
• If you take the example 192.168.123.132 and
divide it into these two parts you get the
following:

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 Subnet Mask
• The second item, which is required for TCP/IP
to work, is the subnet mask.
• The subnet mask is used by the TCP/IP
protocol to determine whether a host is on
the local subnet or on a remote network.

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 Subnet Mask
• In TCP/IP, the parts of the IP address that are
used as the network and host addresses are
not fixed, so the network and host addresses
above cannot be determined unless you have
more information.
• This information is supplied in another 32-bit
number called a subnet mask.

102
 Subnet Mask
• In this example, the subnet mask is
255.255.255.0.
• It is not obvious what this number means
unless you know that 255 in binary notation
equals 11111111; so, the subnet mask is:

103
 Subnet Mask
• Lining up the IP address and the subnet mask
together, the network and host portions of the
address can be separated:

104
 Subnet Mask
• The first 24 bits (the number of ones in the
subnet mask) are identified as the network
address, with the last 8 bits (the number of
remaining zeros in the subnet mask) identified
as the host address. This gives you the
following:

105
 Subnet Mask
• So now you know, for this example using a
255.255.255.0 subnet mask, that the network
ID is 192.168.123.0, and the host address is
0.0.0.132.
• When a packet arrives on the 192.168.123.0
subnet (from the local subnet or a remote
network), and it has a destination address of
192.168.123.132, your computer will receive it
from the network and process it.
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 Subnet Mask
• Almost all decimal subnet masks convert to
binary numbers that are all ones on the left
and all zeros on the right.
• Some other common subnet masks are:

107
 Network Classes
• Internet addresses are allocated by the
InterNIC (http://www.internic.net ), the
organization that administers the Internet.
• These IP addresses are divided into classes.
• The most common of these are classes A, B,
and C.
• Classes D and E exist, but are not generally
used by end users.

108
 Network Classes
• Each of the address classes has a different
default subnet mask.
• You can identify the class of an IP address by
looking at its first octet.

109
Following are the ranges of Class A, B, and C Internet
addresses, each with an example address:

• Class A
– networks use a default subnet mask of 255.0.0.0
and have 0-127 as their first octet.
– The address 10.52.36.11 is a class A address.
– Its first octet is 10, which is between 1 and 126,
inclusive.

110
Following are the ranges of Class A, B, and C Internet
addresses, each with an example address:

• Class B
– networks use a default subnet mask of
255.255.0.0 and have 128-191 as their first octet.
– The address 172.16.52.63 is a class B address.
– Its first octet is 172, which is between 128 and
191, inclusive.

111
Following are the ranges of Class A, B, and C Internet
addresses, each with an example address:

• Class C
– networks use a default subnet mask of
255.255.255.0 and have 192-223 as their first
octet.
– The address 192.168.123.132 is a class C address.
– Its first octet is 192, which is between 192 and
223, inclusive.

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• In some scenarios, the default subnet mask
values do not fit the needs of the organization,
because of the physical topology of the
network, or because the numbers of networks
(or hosts) do not fit within the default subnet
mask restrictions.
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 What is Public IP address?
• Public IP Addresses (also known as Static IP
Addresses) are IP addresses that are visible to
the public.
• Because these IP addresses are public, they
allow other people to know about and access
your computer, like a Web server.
• In some cases, you do not want people to
access your computer or you want to restrict
certain individuals from accessing your
computer or server. 114
 What is Private IP address?
• These addresses can be used on a private
network, but they’re not routable through the
public Internet.
• This not only creates a measure of much-
needed security, but it also conveniently saves
valuable IP address space.

115
Current Private IP addresses as follows:

• Class A
– 10.0.0.0 through 10.255.255.255
• Class B
– 172.16.0.0 through 172.31.255.255
• Class C
– 192.168.0.0 through 192.168.255.255

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 Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast
addresses.
• Unicast
– Unicast packets are sent from host to host.
– The communication is from a single host to
another single host.
– There is one device transmitting a message
destined for one receiver.
– Examples of Unicast transmission are HTTP, SMTP,
TELNET, SSH, POP3 where the request for
information is directed from one sender to only
one receiver at the other end.
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 Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast
addresses.
• Broadcast
– Broadcast is when a single device is transmitting a
message to all other devices in a given address
range.
– This broadcast could reach all hosts on the subnet,
all subnets, or all hosts on all subnets.
– Broadcast packets have the host (and/or subnet)
portion of the address set to all ones.
– By design, most modern routers will block IP
broadcast traffic and restrict it to the local subnet.
118
 Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast
addresses.
• Multicast
– Multicast is a special protocol for use with IP.
– Multicast enables a single device to communicate with a specific set of
hosts, not defined by any standard IP address and mask combination.
– This allows for communication that resembles a conference call.
– Anyone from anywhere can join the conference, and everyone at the
conference hears what the speaker has to say.
– The speaker's message isn't broadcasted everywhere, but only to
those in the conference call itself.
– A special set of addresses is used for multicast communication.
– One good example of Multicast based network is video transmission
network in which one computer needs to transmit video channel to a
specific group of computers.

119
 What are fixed and dynamic IP
addresses?
• In a traditional TCP/IP network architecture
each computer is assigned a permanent IP
address.
• This requires manual configuration of each
and every computer.
• Once the address is assigned it will not
change, unless someone does it manually.
• It is called a fixed IP address.

120
 What are fixed and dynamic IP
addresses?
• When hundreds or thousands of computers are
involved this can be a lot of work.
• Sometimes networks are reconfigured and large
numbers of machines must be given new IP
addresses.
• Each time a computer is added care must be taken to
ensure that it does not use an IP address already
assigned to another computer on the same network.
• To improve this situation, Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) was developed.
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 What are fixed and dynamic IP
addresses?
• A DHCP server is a software program that
assigns IP addresses to computers with no
manual intervention.
• This has tremendous advantages in virtually
any network environment.
• Administrators of large networks save many
hundreds of hours per year over manual
configuration of computers.

122
 What are fixed and dynamic IP
addresses?
• Computers may be added or removed with no
impact on the network configuration and no
concerns about address conflict.
• Users on even the smallest networks benefit
as they do not need to know how to configure
a TCP/IP control panel.
• A computer on such a network is said to have
a dynamic IP address.

123
 DHCP Server
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a
network protocol that enables a server to
automatically assign an IP address to a computer
from a defined range of numbers (i.e., a scope)
configured for a given network.
• A DHCP Server assigns IP addresses to client
computers.
• This is very often used in enterprise networks to
reduce configuration efforts.
• All IP addresses of all computers are stored in a
database that resides on a server machine. 124
 DHCP Server
• Normally the DHCP server provides the client
with at least this basic information:
– IP Address
– Subnet Mask
– Default Gateway

125
 DHCP Server
• Other information can be provided as well,
such as Domain Name Service (DNS) server
addresses and Windows Internet Name
Service (WINS) server addresses.
• The system administrator configures the DHCP
server with the options that are parsed out to
the client.

126
 Domain Name System
• A system for converting host names and
domain names into IP addresses on the
Internet or on local networks that use the
TCP/IP protocol.
• For example, when a Web site address is given
to the DNS either by typing a URL in a browser
or behind the scenes from one application to
another, DNS servers return the IP address of
the server associated with that name.
127
 Domain Name System
• In this hypothetical example,
www.company.com would be converted into
the IP address 204.0.8.51.
• Without DNS, you would have to type the four
numbers and dots into your browser to
retrieve the Web site, which, of course, you
can do.
• Try finding the IP of a favourite Web site and
type in the dotted number instead of the
domain name! 128
 A Hierarchy of Servers
• The DNS system is a hierarchy of database
servers that start with the root servers for all
the top level domains (.com, .net, etc.).

129
 A Hierarchy of Servers

• The root servers point to the "authoritative"

servers located in ISPs and in companies that
turn the host names into IP addresses; the
process known as "name resolution."

130
 A Hierarchy of Servers

• Using the example www.company.com,

COMPANY.COM is the domain name, and
WWW is the host name.
• The domain name is the organization's
identity on the Web, and the host name is the
name of the Web server within that domain.
131
 Getting
a
webpag
e with
DNS
server

132
 What is web client and web
server?
• A Client and a Server are two parts of a
connection.
• In a web environment, these are two distinct
machines, A Client is any machine that
requests information, the Server is who the
client makes the request too.

133
 What is web client and web
server?
• So a Web Server is basically a PC that is
designed to accept requests from remote
computers and send on the information
requested.
• A Web client is actually your browser.
• It is the browser on you PC/Mac that makes
the requests to the remote server.
• A PC/Mac that uses a web (Client) browser is
referred to as a Client Machine.
134
 FTP Client
• An FTP (File Transfer Protocol) Client is software used
to transfer files between two computers over the
Internet.
• Transferring can be as easy as dragging-and-dropping
files from one pane to another - one pane displaying
files on your own computer, the other displaying files
on the remote computer, or server.
• In terms of hosting, an FTP Client is used to upload
Web page files onto a host's server.
• There are many FTP Clients available on the internet.
A popular, free FTP Client is Filezilla. 135
 Describe e-mail protocols in clients and
servers: SMTP, POP3,and IMAP4.
Overview
• SMTP, POP3 and IMAP are TCP/IP protocols
used for mail delivery.
• If you plan to set up an email server such as
hMailServer, you must know what they are
used for.
• Each protocol is just a specific set of
communication rules between computers.

136
 SMTP
• SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
• SMTP is used when email is delivered from an
email client, such as Outlook Express, to an
email server or when email is delivered from
one email server to another.
• SMTP uses port 25.

137
 POP3
• POP3 stands for Post Office Protocol. POP3
allows an email client to download an email
from an email server.
• The POP3 protocol is simple and does not
offer many features except for download.
• Its design assumes that the email client
downloads all available email from the server,
deletes them from the server and then
disconnects.
• POP3 normally uses port 110. 138
 IMAP
• IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol.
• IMAP shares many similar features with POP3.
• It, too, is a protocol that an email client can use to
download email from an email server.
• However, IMAP includes many more features than
POP3.
• The IMAP protocol is designed to let users keep their
email on the server.
• IMAP requires more disk space on the server and
more CPU resources than POP3, as all emails are
stored on the server. IMAP normally uses port 143.
139
Examples
1. Suppose you use hMailServer as your email
server to send an email to
[email protected].
2. You click Send in your email client, say,
Outlook Express.

140
3. Outlook Express delivers the email to
hMailServer using the SMTP protocol.
4. hMailServer delivers the email to Microsoft's
mail server, mail.microsoft.com, using SMTP.
5. Bill's Mozilla Mail client downloads the email
from mail.microsoft.com to his laptop using
the POP3 protocol (or IMAP).

141