MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

OF MATERIALS

1. Stress‑Strain Relationships
2. Hardness
3. Effect of Temperature on Properties
4. Fluid Properties
5. Viscoelastic Behavior of Polymers

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Mechanical Properties in
Design and Manufacturing
 Mechanical properties determine a material’s behavior
when subjected to mechanical stresses
 Properties include elastic modulus, ductility,
hardness, and various measures of strength
 Dilemma: mechanical properties that are desirable to
the designer, such as high strength, usually make
manufacturing more difficult

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Stress‑Strain Relationships

 Three types of static stresses to which materials can

be subjected:
1. Tensile - stretching the material
2. Compressive - squeezing the material
3. Shear - causing adjacent portions of the material
to slide against each other
 Stress‑strain curve - basic relationship that describes
mechanical properties for all three types

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Tensile Test

 Most common test for studying

stress‑strain relationship,
especially metals
 In the test, a force pulls the
material, elongating it and
reducing its diameter
 (left) Tensile force applied and
(right) resulting elongation of
material

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 Tensile Test Specimen

 ASTM (American Society for

Testing and Materials)
specifies preparation of test
specimen

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 Tensile Test Setup

 Tensile testing
machine

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 Tensile Test Sequence

 (1) No load; (2) uniform elongation and area reduction; (3)

maximum load; (4) necking; (5) fracture; (6) final length

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Engineering Stress

 Defined as force divided by original area:

F
s
Ao

where s = engineering stress, F = applied

force, and Ao = original area of test specimen

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 Engineering Strain

 Defined at any point in the test as

L  Lo
e
Lo

where e = engineering strain; L = length at any

point during elongation; and Lo = original gage
length

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Typical Engineering
Stress-Strain Plot

 Typical engineering
stress‑strain plot in a
tensile test of a metal
 Two regions:
1. Elastic region
2. Plastic region

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 Elastic Region in
Stress‑Strain Curve
 Relationship between stress and strain is linear
Hooke's Law: e = E e
where E = modulus of elasticity
 Material returns to its original length when stress is
removed
 E is a measure of the inherent stiffness of a material
 Its value differs for different materials

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Yield Point in
Stress‑Strain Curve
 As stress increases, a point in the linear relationship
is finally reached when the material begins to yield
 Yield point Y can be identified by the change in
slope at the upper end of the linear region
 Y = a strength property
 Other names for yield point:
 Yield strength
 Yield stress
 Elastic limit

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 Plastic Region in
Stress‑Strain Curve
 Yield point marks the beginning of plastic deformation
 The stress-strain relationship is no longer guided by
Hooke's Law
 As load is increased beyond Y, elongation proceeds
at a much faster rate than before, causing the slope
of the curve to change dramatically

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Tensile Strength in
Stress‑Strain Curve
 Elongation is accompanied by a uniform reduction in
cross‑sectional area, consistent with maintaining
constant volume
 Finally, the applied load F reaches a maximum value,
and engineering stress at this point is called the tensile
strength TS (a.k.a. ultimate tensile strength)

F
TS = max
Ao

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 Ductility in Tensile Test

 Ability of a material to plastically strain without fracture

 Ductility measure = elongation EL
Lf  Lo
EL 
Lo
where EL = elongation; Lf = specimen length at
fracture; and Lo = original specimen length
Lf is measured as the distance between gage marks
after two pieces of specimen are put back together

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 True Stress

 Stress value obtained by dividing the instantaneous

area into applied load
F

A

where  = true stress; F = force; and A = actual

(instantaneous) area resisting the load

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 True Strain

 Provides a more realistic assessment of

"instantaneous" elongation per unit length

L
dL L
   ln
L L o
Lo

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 True Stress-Strain Curve

 True stress‑strain
curve for previous
engineering
stress‑strain plot

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Strain Hardening in
Stress-Strain Curve
 Note that true stress increases continuously in the
plastic region until necking
 In the engineering stress‑strain curve, the
significance of this was lost because stress was
based on the original area value
 It means that the metal is becoming stronger as strain
increases
 This is the property called strain hardening

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 True Stress-Strain
in Log-Log Plot

 True stress‑strain
curve plotted on
log‑log scale.

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 Flow Curve

 Because it is a straight line in a log-log plot, the

relationship between true stress and true strain in the
plastic region is
  K n
where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain
hardening exponent

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Categories of Stress-Strain
Relationship: Perfectly Elastic
 Behavior is defined
completely by modulus of
elasticity E
 Fractures rather than
yielding to plastic flow
 Brittle materials: ceramics,
many cast irons, and
thermosetting polymers

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Stress-Strain Relationships:
Elastic and Perfectly Plastic
 Stiffness defined by E
 Once Y reached, deforms
plastically at same stress
level
 Flow curve: K = Y, n = 0
 Metals behave like this when
heated to sufficiently high
temperatures (above
recrystallization)

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Stress-Strain Relationships:
Elastic and Strain Hardening
 Hooke's Law in elastic
region, yields at Y
 Flow curve: K > Y, n > 0
 Most ductile metals
behave this way when
cold worked

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Compression Test

 Applies a load that

squeezes the ends of a
cylindrical specimen
between two platens
 Compression force applied
to test piece and resulting
change in height and
diameter

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 Compression Test Setup

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 Engineering Stress in
Compression
 As the specimen is compressed, its height is reduced
and cross‑sectional area is increased

 = -F
Ao

where Ao = original area of the specimen

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Engineering Strain in
Compression
 Engineering strain is defined
h  ho
e
ho
Since height is reduced during compression, value
of e is negative (the negative sign is usually ignored
when expressing compression strain)

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Stress-Strain Curve in
Compression

 Shape of plastic region is

different from tensile test
because cross section
increases
 Calculated value of
engineering stress is
higher

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Tensile Test vs.
Compression Test
 Although differences exist between engineering
stress‑strain curves in tension and compression, the
true stress‑strain relationships are nearly identical
 Since tensile test results are more common, flow curve
values (K and n) from tensile test data can be applied to
compression operations
 When using tensile K and n data for compression,
ignore necking, which is a phenomenon peculiar to
strain induced by tensile stresses

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Testing of Brittle Materials

 Hard brittle materials (e.g., ceramics) possess elasticity

but little or no plasticity
 Conventional tensile test cannot be easily applied
 Often tested by a bending test (also called flexure test)
 Specimen of rectangular cross‑section is positioned
between two supports, and a load is applied at its
center

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Bending Test

 Bending of a rectangular cross section results in both

tensile and compressive stresses in the material: (1) initial
loading; (2) highly stressed and strained specimen

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Testing of Brittle Materials

 Brittle materials do not flex

 They deform elastically until fracture
 Failure occurs because tensile strength of outer
fibers of specimen are exceeded
 Failure type: cleavage - common with ceramics
and metals at low temperatures, in which
separation rather than slip occurs along certain
crystallographic planes

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Shear Properties

 Application of stresses in opposite directions on either side

of a thin element: (a) shear stress and (b) shear strain

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Shear Stress and Strain

F
 Shear stress defined as  
A
where F = applied force; and A = area over which
deflection occurs.

 Shear strain defined as  
b
where  = deflection element; and b = distance over
which deflection occurs

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Torsion Stress-Strain Curve

 Typical shear
stress‑strain curve
from a torsion test

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 Shear Elastic Stress‑Strain
Relationship

 In the elastic region, the relationship is defined as

  G
where G = shear modulus, or shear modulus of
elasticity
For most materials, G  0.4E, where E = elastic
modulus

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Shear Plastic Stress‑Strain
Relationship
 Relationship similar to flow curve for a tensile test
 Shear stress at fracture = shear strength S
 Shear strength can be estimated from tensile
strength: S  0.7(TS)
 Since cross‑sectional area of test specimen in torsion
test does not change as in tensile and compression,
engineering stress‑strain curve for shear  true
stress‑strain curve

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Hardness

 Resistance to permanent indentation

 Good hardness generally means material is
resistant to scratching and wear
 Most tooling used in manufacturing must be hard
for scratch and wear resistance

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Hardness Tests

 Commonly used for assessing material properties

because they are quick and convenient
 Variety of testing methods are appropriate due to
differences in hardness among different materials
 Most well‑known hardness tests are Brinell and
Rockwell
 Other test methods are also available, such as Vickers,
Knoop, Scleroscope, and durometer

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Brinell Hardness Test

 Widely used for

testing metals and
nonmetals of low to
medium hardness
 A hard ball is
pressed into
specimen surface
with a load of 500,
1500, or 3000 kg

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Rockwell Hardness Test

 Another widely used test

 A cone shaped indenter is pressed into specimen
using a minor load of 10 kg, thus seating indenter in
material
 Then, a major load of 150 kg is applied, causing
indenter to penetrate beyond its initial position
 Additional penetration distance d is converted into a
Rockwell hardness reading by the testing machine

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Rockwell Hardness Test

 (1) Initial minor load

and (2) major load

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Effect of Temperature on
Properties

 General effect of
temperature on
strength and
ductility

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 Hot Hardness

 Ability of a material
to retain hardness at
elevated
temperatures
 Typical hardness as
a function of
temperature for
several materials

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Recrystallization in Metals

 Most metals strain harden at room temperature

according to the flow curve (n > 0)
 But if heated to sufficiently high temperature and
deformed, strain hardening does not occur
 Instead, new grains form that are free of strain
 The metal has recrystallized
 The metal behaves as a perfectly plastic material;
that is, n = 0

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Recrystallization Temperature

 Recrystallization temperature of a given metal = about

one‑half its melting point (0.5 Tm) as measured on an
absolute temperature scale
 Recrystallization takes time
 The recrystallization temperature is specified as the
temperature at which new grains are formed in about
one hour

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Recrystallization and
Manufacturing
 Recrystallization can be exploited in manufacturing
 Heating a metal to its recrystallization temperature
prior to deformation allows a greater amount of
straining
 Lower forces and power are required to perform
the process
 Forming a metal at temperatures above its
recrystallization temperature is called hot working

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Fluid Properties and
Manufacturing
 Fluids flow - they take the shape of the container that
holds them
 Many manufacturing processes are accomplished on
materials converted from solid to liquid by heating
 Called solidification processes
 Examples:
 Metals are cast in molten state
 Glass is formed in a heated and fluid state
 Polymers are almost always shaped as fluids

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Viscosity in Fluids

 Viscosity is the resistance to flow that is characteristic of

a given fluid
 Flow is a defining characteristic of fluids, but the
tendency to flow varies for different fluids
 Viscosity is a measure of the internal friction when
velocity gradients are present in the fluid
 The more viscous the fluid, the higher the internal
friction and the greater the resistance to flow
 Reciprocal of viscosity is fluidity

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Viscosity

 Viscosity can be defined using two parallel plates separated

by a distance d and a fluid fills the space between the plates

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 Shear Stress

 Shear stress is the frictional force exerted by the fluid

per unit area
 Motion of the upper plate is resisted by this frictional
force resulting from the shear viscosity of the fluid
 This force F can be reduced to a shear stress  by
dividing by plate area A
F

A

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Shear Rate

 Shear stress is related to shear rate, defined as the

change in velocity dv relative to dy

dv
 
dy

where = shear rate, 1/s; dv = change in velocity,

m/s; and dy = change in distance y, m
Shear rate = velocity gradient perpendicular to flow
direction

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Shear Viscosity

 Shear viscosity is the fluid property that defines the

relationship between F/A and dv/dy; that is,
F dv
 or   
A dy
where  = a constant of proportionality called the
coefficient of viscosity, Pa-s
 For Newtonian fluids, shear viscosity is a constant
 For non-Newtonian fluids, it is not

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Coefficient of Viscosity

 Rearranging, coefficient of viscosity can be

expressed:



 Viscosity of a fluid is the ratio of shear stress to shear
rate during flow

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Flow Rate and
Viscosity of Polymers

 Viscosity of a thermoplastic polymer melt is not

constant
 It is affected by flow rate
 Its behavior is non-Newtonian
 A fluid that exhibits this decreasing viscosity with
increasing shear rate is called pseudoplastic
 This behavior complicates analysis of polymer
shaping processes such as injection molding

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Newtonian versus Pseudoplastic
Fluids
 Viscous behaviors of
Newtonian and
pseudoplastic fluids
 Polymer melts exhibit
pseudoplastic
behavior
 For comparison, the
behavior of a plastic
solid material is
shown

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Viscoelastic Behavior

 Material property that determines the strain that the

material experiences when subjected to combinations
of stress and temperature over time
 Combination of viscosity and elasticity

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
 Elastic Behavior vs.
Viscoelastic Behavior
 (a) Response of
elastic material;
and (b) response
of a viscoelastic
material
 Material in (b)
takes a strain
that depends on
time and
temperature

©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e