Discrete Structures
MUHAMMAD JAFFAR KHAN (MS Electrical Engineering)
MASTER IN COMPUTER SCIENCE-1
FEDERAL URDU UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD (Campus).
WHAT IS GRAPH THEORY?
• Graph theory is the study of mathematical structures
called graphs that are used to model pair wise
relations between objects from a certain collection.
• The origin of graph theory can be traced back to
Leonard Euler's (German) work on the “Konigsberg
bridge problem” on 1736.
Graphs
• What are Graphs?
A class of discrete structures useful for representing
relations among objects.
Vertices (nodes) connected by edges.
Theory about graphs can be used to solve a lot of
important problems
4
Perhaps the first graph you
saw
Can we sent all the utilities to the three
houses without crossing wires?
Not possible!
5
The first graph theory
Königsberg
City in Germany
The first graph theory paper by Leonhard Euler
In 1736: Seven bridges of Königsberg
A town with 7 bridges and 4 pieces of land…
The (Eulerian) path
should cross over each
of the seven bridges
exactly once
The Origin of Graph Theory
Can we travel each bridge exactly once and
return to the starting point?
The (Eulerian) path should cross over each of the
seven bridges exactly once
Not possible!
7
THE Bridges of the Konigsberg
This can be pictured as follows:
e1 e2 e4
B e3 D
e5 e6 e7
C
•Vertices
The question is whether
are V={A,B,C,D} a person
and edges are E=can plan a walk in
{e1,e2,e3,e4,e5,e6,e7}.
e1 such
and e2a way that hewith
is associated will the
cross each ofpair
unordered these bridges
(A,B), e5 and e6 is
once but
associated not(B,C),
with more e3than once. with (B,D), e4 is associated
is associated
with (A,D) and e7 is associated with (C,D) and so on.
Definition - Graphs
A graph G = (V, E) is defined by a set of vertices
V, and a set of edges E consisting of ordered or
unordered pairs of vertices from V.
Thus a graph G = (V, E)
V = set of vertices
E = set of edges = subset of V V
Thus |E| = O(|V|2)
9
Vertex Edge Graph
Vertex Edge Graph - A collection of points some
of which are joined by line segments or curves.
This graph has 6 vertices and 7 edges
Each point is a vertex and each line is an edge
11
Simple Graphs
A graph in which each edge connects two
different vertices and where no two edges
connect the same pair of vertices.
Note: Multiple edges between pair of nodes;
Self Loops are not allowed
12
Example of a Simple Graph
Let V be the set of states in the far southeastern
U.S.:
– i.e., V={FL, GA, AL, MS, LA, SC, TN, NC}
Let E={{u,v}| u,v ∈ V and u adjoins v}
= {{FL,GA},{FL,AL},{FL,MS},
{FL,LA}, {GA,AL}, {AL,MS},
{MS,LA}, {GA,SC}, {GA,TN},
{SC,NC}, {NC,TN}, {MS,TN},
{MS,AL}}
13
Multigraphs
A multigraph:
multiple edges connecting same nodes
Simple Graph + Multiple Edges (Multiedges)
E.g., nodes are cities, edges are segments of major
highways.
14
Pseudographs
Pseudograph:
Like a multigraph, but edges connecting a node to itself are
allowed.
Simple Graph+ multiedge+ loop
15
Directed Graphs
A directed graph (V,E) consists of a set of vertices V and
a set of directed edges E on V : ordered pairs of
elements (u,v), u,v ∈ V.
Note: loop are allowed in a directed graph.
Road networks between cities are typically undirected.
Street networks within cities are almost always directed
because of one-
way streets.
Most graphs of graph-
theoretic interest are undirected.
16
17
Directed Multigraphs
A directed multigraph has directed parallel edges.
Directed Multigraph=Directed Graph+ Multiedges
E.g.,
V=web pages,
E=hyperlinks.
The WWW is a directed multigraph...
18
Types of Graphs: Summary
Summary of the book’s definitions.
Keep in mind this terminology is not fully
standardized across different authors...
19
Graph Models
• Graphs are used in a wide variety of models
• We now describe some diverse graph models for
some interesting applications
20
Graph Theory Application
1. Assignment of jobs to employees of an organization
2. The outcomes of round-robin tournaments.
3. To model acquaintanceship between people
4. Telephone calls between telephone numbers, and links
between websites.
5. To walk down all the streets in a city without going down a
street twice
6. Circuit board.
7. Two chemical compounds with the same molecular formula but
different structures using graphs.
8. Computer networks.
22
Graph Models: Social Networks
• Graphs can be used to model social structures based on
different kinds of relationships between people or groups.
• In a social network, vertices represent individuals or
organizations and edges represent relationships between
them.
• Useful graph models of social networks include:
friendship graphs - undirected graphs where two people are
connected if they are friends (in the real world, on Facebook, or in a
particular virtual world, and so on.)
collaboration graphs - undirected graphs where two people are
connected if they collaborate in a specific way
influence graphs - directed graphs where there is an edge from one
person to another if the first person can influence the second person
23
SOCIAL NETWORKS
Acquaintanceship Graphs
• Represent whether two people know each other,
that is, whether they are acquainted.
• Each person in a particular group of people is
represented by a vertex.
• Undirected edge is used to connect two people
when these people know each other.
• No multiple edges are used.
• Usually no loops are used.
• (If we want to include the notion of self-
knowledge, we would include loops.) 24
Example
25
26
An influence graph
A directed edge (a, b) means a can influence b.
E.g. (Fred, Brian) means Fred can influence
Brian.
27
Collaboration Graphs
• Academic
• Non-Academic
28
Graph Models:
Computer Networks
• In all these graph models, the vertices represent data
centers and the edges represent communication links.
• To model a computer network where we are only
concerned whether two data centers are connected by
a communications link, we use a simple graph.
This is the appropriate type of graph when we only care
whether two data centers are directly linked (and not how
many links there may be) and all communications links work in
both directions.
29
Graph Models:
Computer Networks
• To model a computer network where we care about the
number of links between data centers,
we use a multigraph.
30
Graph Models:
Computer Networks
• To model a computer network with diagnostic
links at data centers,
we use a pseudograph, as loops are needed.
31
Graph Models:
Computer Networks
• To model a network with multiple one-way links,
we use a directed multigraph.
• Note that
we could use a directed graph without multiple edges
if we only care whether there is at least one link from
a data center to another data center.
32
Call Graphs
33
Call Graphs (2)
• Call graphs that model actual calling activities can be huge.
• For example, one call graph studied at AT&T, modeling calls
during 20 days, has about 290 million vertices and 4 billion
edges
34
SOFTWARE DESIGN APPLICATIONS
A Precedence Graph
• The dependencies between the seven modules in the design of a
web browser are represented by this module dependency graph.
• We can use a directed graph called a precedence graph to represent
which statements must have already been executed before we
execute each statement.
• Vertices represent statements in a computer program
• There is a directed edge from a vertex to a second vertex if the
second vertex cannot be executed before the first
Which statements must be executed before S6 is executed in the program?
The model says that statements for which there are
edges to S6 must be executed before S6 , namely the
statements S1, S2 , S3 , S4 and S5.
35
TOURNAMENTS
Round Robin Tournaments
• A tournament where every team plays every other
team exactly once.
• Such tournaments can be modeled using directed
graphs where each team is represented by a
vertex.
• Note that (a, b) is an edge if team ‘a’ beats team
‘b’.
• This graph is a simple directed graph, containing no
loops or multiple directed edges.
36
• Team 1 is undefeated in this tournament, and
Team 3 is winless.
37
A Single-Elimination Tournament
38
Question
• Can you find a subject to which graph theory has
not been applied?
39
10.2 Graph Terminology
40
Graph Terminology
Adjacency:
Let G be an undirected graph with edge set E.
Let e ∈ E be (or map to) the pair {u,v}.
Then we say:
u, v are adjacent / neighbors / connected.
Edge e is incident with vertices u and v.
Edge e connects u and v.
Vertices u and v are endpoints of edge e.
41
Neighborhood of a Vertex
Let G be an undirected graph, v ∈ V a vertex.
The neighborhood of v, N(v), is the set of all
neighbors.
N(a) = {b, c}
N(b) = {a, b, c}
N(c) = {a, b, d}
N(d) = {d, c}
N(e) = {}
42
Degree of a Vertex
Let G be an undirected graph, v ∈ V a vertex.
The degree of v, deg(v), is its number of
incident edges. (Note: self-loops are counted
twice and have degree 2.)
deg(a) = 3
deg(b) = 3 + 2 = 5
deg(c) = 5
deg(d) = 3 + 2 = 5
deg(e) = 0 (isolated vertex)
Pendent vertex = with degree 143
EXAMPLE
• What are the degrees and what are the
neighborhoods of the vertices in the graph:
44
EXAMPLE
• The degrees:
– deg(a) = 4, deg(b) = deg(e) = 6, deg(c) = 1, and
deg(d ) = 5.
• The neighborhoods
– N(a) = {b, d, e}, N(b) = {a, b, c, d, e}, N(c) = {b},
N(d) = {a, b, e}, and N(e) = {a, b, d}.
45
46
47
48
The Handshaking Theorem
Let G be an undirected graph* with vertex set V and edge
set E. Then
deg(v) 2 E
vV
Where,
|E| is the (cardinality of Edges) number of edges.
is the sum of the degrees of the vertices , means
Total Degree of Graph.
The sum of all the vertex degrees is an even number.
*
(simple, multi, or pseudo) 49
Example
• deg(a)=3, deg(b)=5,
deg(c)=5, deg(d)=5,
deg(e)=0
deg(v) deg(a) deg(b) deg(c) deg(d ) deg(e) 18 2 | E |
v{ a ,b ,c , d ,e}
50
EXAMPLE 3 at
Page# 653
• How many edges are there in a graph with 10
vertices each of degree six?
• deg(a) = deg(b) = deg(c) = … = deg(j) = 6
According to Handshaking Theorem,
deg(v) 2 E
vV
deg(a) + deg(b) + deg(c) + … + deg(j) = 2|E|
10*6 = 2|E|
|E| = 60/2 = 30
There are 30 edges in a graph.
51
The handshaking Theorem Cont.
• It is called the handshaking theorem because:
– It tells us that if several people shake hands, then the
total number of hands shaken must be even
– It is precisely because just two hands are involved in
each handshake.
• Examples on board.
– 2 vertices (deg(a)+deg(b)=2|E|)
• 1+1 = 2*|E|
– 3 vertices (deg(a)+deg(b)+deg(c)=2|E|)
• 2+2+2=2*|E|
• 1+1+0 = 2*|E|
– 4 vertices (deg(a)+deg(b)+deg(c)+deg(d)=2|E|) 52
Handshaking Theorem
(Corollary)
Corollary: Any undirected graph has an even
number of vertices of odd degree.
In any undirected graph the number of vertices
of odd degree is even.
Examples on board.
1+1 = 2
3+3 =6
3+1+1+1+5+3 = 14
3+3+3+3 = 12
2+(3+1+1+1) = 6
53
Directed Degree
Let G be a directed graph, v a vertex of G.
The in-degree of v, deg-(v), is the number of
edges going to v. ( v <----- )
The out-degree of v, deg+(v), is the number of
edges coming out from v. ( v -----> )
The degree of v, deg(v):≡deg-(v)+deg+(v), is the
sum of v’s in-degree and out-degree.
54
Example# 4 at Page# 654
Determine out/in-degree of each node
deg+(a)= 4 deg-(a)= 2
deg+(b)= 1 deg-(b)= 2
deg+(c)= 2 deg-(c)= 3
deg+(d)= 2 deg-(d)= 2
deg+(e)= 3 deg-(e)= 3
deg+(f)= 0 deg-(f)= 0
55
Directed Handshaking
Theorem
Let G be a directed (possibly multi-) graph with
vertex set V and edge set E. Then:
Note that the degree of a node is unchanged by
whether we consider its edges to be directed or
undirected.
56
END
57
