Solidification Process

Classification of
Manufacturing
processes
  solidification processes, in which the starting material is a
heated liquid or semifluid that cools and solidifies to form the
part geometry;
 particulate processing, in which the starting material is a
powder, and the powders are formed and heated into the desired

Shaping geometry;

process  deformation processes, in which the starting material is a

ductile solid (commonly metal) that is deformed to shape the
part;
 material removal processes, in which the starting material is a
solid (ductile or brittle), from which material is removed so that
the resulting part has the desired geometry.
Classification of
Solidification
  Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by gravity or
other force into a mold where it solidifies in the shape of the
mold cavity. Note: Casting is the name used for metals, and
molding is the common term used for plastics.
 The principle of casting : melt the metal, pour it into a mold,
and let it cool and solidify

Casting process  Two types: casting of ingots and the casting of shapes
o Ingots: describes a large casting that is simple in shape and
intended for subsequent reshaping by processes such as rolling
or forging.
o Shape casting: involves the production of more complex
geometries that are much closer to the final desired shape of the
part or product.
Casting process

Casting and molding processes start with a work material heated

to a fluid or semifluid state. The process consists of: (1) pouring
the fluid into a mold cavity and (2) allowing the fluid to
solidify, after which the solid part is removed from the mold.
  Casting can be used to create complex part geometries,
including both external and internal shapes.
 Some casting processes are capable of producing parts to net
shape. No further manufacturing operations are required to
achieve the required geometry and dimensions of the parts.
Other casting processes are near net shape, for which some
Advanages of additional shape processing is required (usually machining) in

casting order to achieve accurate dimensions and details.

 Casting can be used to produce very large parts. Castings
weighing more than 100 tons have been made.
 The casting process can be performed on any metal that can be
heated to the liquid state.
 Some casting methods are quite suited to mass production.
  limitations on mechanical properties, porosity, poor
Disadvantages dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some casting
processes, safety hazards to humans when processing hot
of casting molten metals, and environmental problems.
 Parts made by casting processes range in size from small
components weighing only a few ounces up to very large products
weighing tons. The list of parts includes dental crowns, jewelry,
Parts that can be statues, wood-burning stoves, engine blocks and heads for
made by casting automotive vehicles, machine frames, railway wheels, frying
pans, pipes, and pump housings. All varieties of metals can be
cast, ferrous and nonferrous.
 1. To accomplish a casting operation, the metal is first heated to
a temperature high enough to completely transform it into a
liquid state.
2. It is then poured, or otherwise directed, into the cavity of the
mold. In an open mold, Figure 2(a), the liquid metal is simply
poured until it fills the open cavity. In a closed mold, Figure
basic steps of 2(b), a passageway, called the gating system, is provided to
permit the molten metal to flow from outside the mold into
casting the cavity. The closed mold is by far the more important
category in production casting operations.
3. As soon as the molten metal is in the mold, it begins to cool.
When the temperature drops sufficiently (e.g., to the freezing
point for a pure metal), solidification begins. Solidification
involves a change of phase of the metal.
basic steps of
casting FIGURE 2 Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a
container in the shape of the desired part; and (b) closed mold,
in which the mold geometry is more complex and requires a
gating system (passageway) leading into the cavity.
 5. Mold removal
 The casting is removed from the mold
 Single-use molds are broken away from the casting
Six basic steps  Permanent molds must be designed so that removal does not
of casting damage the part
6. Cleaning, finishing, and inspection operations
 Excess material along parting lines may have to be machined
  Casting processes divide into two broad categories, according to type
of mold used: expendable-mold casting and permanent-mold casting.
 An expendable mold means that the mold in which the molten metal
solidifies must be destroyed in order to remove the casting. These
molds are made out of sand, plaster, or similar materials, whose form
is maintained by using binders of various kinds. Sand casting is the
most prominent example of the expendable-mold processes. In sand
Casting casting, the liquid metal is poured into a mold made of sand. After
the metal hardens, the mold must be sacrificed in order to recover the
categories casting.
 A permanent mold is one that can be used over and over to produce
many castings. It is made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic
refractory material) that can withstand the high temperatures of the
casting operation. In permanent-mold casting, the mold consists of
two (or more) sections that can be opened to permit removal of the
finished part. Die casting is the most familiar process in this group.
Cross section of
a mold and • The mold consists of two halves: cope and drag.
• The cope is the upper half of the mold, and the drag is the bottom half.
terminology These two mold parts are contained in a box, called a flask. The two
halves of the mold separate at the parting line.
• Pattern: In sand casting (and other expendable-mold processes) the mold
cavity is formed by means of a pattern, which is made of wood, metal,
plastic, or other material and has the shape of the part to be cast.
• Core: is a form placed inside the mold cavity to define the interior
geometry of the part. In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand,
although other materials can be used, such as metals, plaster, and
ceramics.
Cross section of
a mold and • Riser-additional void in the mold that provides additional metal to

terminology compensate for shrinkage

• Gating system- network of channels that delivers the molten metal to the
mold. the gating system typically consists of a downsprue (also called
simply the sprue), through which the metal enters a runner that leads into
the main cavity. At the top of the downsprue, a pouring cup is often used
to minimize splash and turbulence as the metal flows into the
downsprue.
• Pouring cup- portion of the gating system that controls the delivery of
the metal
Cross section of
a mold and
terminology The riser: is a reservoir in the mold that serves as a source of
liquid metal for the casting to compensate for shrinkage during
solidification.
Note: Shrinkage is an internal or external change in volume that occurs during a
phase change in a metal's transition from a liquid state to a solid state at the
exposed surface.
Runners- horizontal channels
  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oHPFKbRSWLw

Casting video  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b7_LEp5aNXA

  The heat energy required is the sum of (1) the heat to raise the
temperature to the melting point, (2) the heat of fusion (latent

HEATING heat, no change in temperature) to convert it from solid to

liquid, and (3) the heat to raise the molten metal to the desired
THE METAL temperature for pouring. This can be expressed:
 Problem:
Heating Metal
for Casting
Solution
  After heating, the metal is ready for pouring. Introduction of
molten metal into the mold, including its flow through the
gating system and into the cavity, is a critical step in the casting
process.
 The pouring temperature is the temperature of the molten metal
POURING as it is introduced into the mold.

THE MOLTEN  Pouring rate refers to the volumetric rate at which the molten
metal is poured into the mold. If the rate is too slow, the metal
METAL will chill and freeze before filling the cavity.
 If the pouring rate is excessive, turbulence can become a
serious problem. Turbulence in fluid flow is characterized by
erratic variations in the magnitude and direction of the velocity
throughout the fluid.
 There are several relationships that govern the flow of liquid metal through the
gating system and into the mold. An important relationship is Bernoulli’s
theorem, which states that the sum of the energies (head, pressure, kinetic, and
friction) at any two points in a flowing liquid are equal. This can be written in the
following form:

ENGINEERIN where h is the head, F is the head losses due to friction.

G ANALYSIS If we ignore friction losses (to be sure, friction will affect the liquid flow through
a sand mold), and assume that the system remains at atmospheric pressure

OF POURING throughout, then the equation can be reduced to

Let us define point 1 at the top of the sprue and point 2 at its base. If point 2 is
used as the reference plane, then the head at that point is zero (h2 = 0) and h1 is the
height (length) of the sprue. When the metal is poured into the pouring cup and
overflows down the sprue, its initial velocity at the top is zero (v1 = 0).
Bernoulli’s
theorem
 Another relationship of importance during pouring is the
continuity law, which states that the volume rate of flow remains
constant throughout the liquid. The volume flow rate is equal to
the velocity multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the flowing
liquid. The continuity law can be expressed:

Engineering The time required to fill a mold cavity of volume V as

Analysis
 SOLIDIFICATI
ON OF
METALS Cooling curve for a pure metal during casting.

A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature equal to its

freezing point, which is the same as its melting point.
SOLIDIFICATI
ON OF Alloy

(a) Phase diagram for a copper– nickel alloy system and (b)
associated cooling curve for a 50%Ni–50%Cu composition
during casting.
Solidification
SOLIDIFICATI
ON TIME
  Chemical reactions can occur between molten metal and its
surroundings
 Reactions can lead to defects in the final castings
Molten Metal  Metal oxides may form when molten metal reacts with oxygen
Problems/  Dross or slag is the material that can be carried with the molten
casting defects metal during pouring and filling of the mold
 Affects the surface finish, machinability, and mechanical
properties
  Gas porosity
 Gas that is not rejected from the liquid metal may be trapped
upon solidification
 Several techniques to prevent gas porosity
 Prevent the gas from initially dissolving in the liquid
Molten Metal  Melting can be done in a vacuum
Problems/  Melting can be done in environments with low-solubility gases
casting defects  Minimize turbulence
 Vacuum degassing removes the gas from the liquid before it is
poured into the castings
 Gas flushing- passing inert gases or reactive gases through the
liquid metal
  Most metals undergo noticeable volumetric contraction when
cooled
 Three principle stages of shrinkage:

Solidification  Shrinkage of liquid as it cools from the solidification

temperature
Shrinkage  Solidification shrinkage as the liquid turns into solid
 Solid metal contraction as the solidified metal cools to room
temperature
Solidification
Shrinkage

Shrinkage of a cylindrical casting during solidification and cooling: (0) starting level of
molten metal immediately after pouring; (1) reduction in level caused by liquid
contraction during cooling; (2) reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity
caused by solidification shrinkage; and (3) further reduction in height and diameter due
to thermal contraction during cooling of the solid metal. For clarity, dimensional
reductions are exaggerated in our sketches.