Matrix:

Matrices have a very wide range of applications in various disciplines inside as well as outside of
Mathematics.

Definition 1: A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers, usually enclosed in square

brackets. The numbers in the array are called the entries.

Notation: We shall denote matrices by capital numbers as A, B, C, P, or X. Entries in the matrix

are denoted by small letters.

Example 1: The following are examples of matrices:

Definition 2: A matrix with m rows (horizontal lines) and n columns (vertical lines) is called an
matrix.

Remarks: 1. If m = n, then the matrix is called a square matrix.

2. If m = 1, then the matrix is called a row matrix or row vector.

3. If n = 1, then the matrix is called a column matrix or row vector.

Example 2. Consider the matrices in Example 1:

A is a 2 x 2 matrix (square matrix), B is a 1 x 3 matrix (row matrix), C is a 3 x 2 matrix,

D is a 1 x 1 matrix (square matrix), E is a 3 x 1 matrix (column matrix) and F is a 3 x 2 matrix.

Here, D can be considered also as either row or column vector.

Remark: In a matrix, we often denote the entry in row i and column j by . For instance, in matrix
A above,

• We sometimes also use the notation

Example 3:

1.

then

Definition 3: We say that two matrices A and B are equal and write A = B if they have the same
size and their corresponding entries are equal.
Example 4: 1. For two matrices to be equal, we must have

x = 2 and y = 3.

2. Consider the matrices

Definition 4: If A and B are two matrices of the same size, the sum A + B is the matrix obtained by
adding the corresponding entries of A and B.

(Addition of matrices of different sizes is not defined.)

If is also an m x n matrix.
Example 5. Let

Then

. Here, observe that A + B = B + A. (Matrices addition is commentative.)

Definition 5: An m x n matrix in which all entries are nought or zero, is called the m x n zero
matrix and is usually denoted by O.

Definition 6: If A is any matrix, then the negative of A is the matrix in which all entries are the
negatives of the corresponding entries of A. The negative of A is denoted by - A.
Example 6:

1. is a 2 x 3 zero matrix.

2. If

Definition 6: If A and B are two matrices of the same size, the difference A – B is the matrix
obtained by subtracting the corresponding entries of A and B.

If and both m x n matrices then is also an m x n matrix.

Example 7: If then

A–B=.
Properties of matrix addition: Let A, B, C and O be matrices of the same size.

1. A + B = B + A :

This rule is called the commutative rule for matrix addition.

2. (A + B) + C = A + (B + C):
This rule is called the associative rule for matrix addition.

3. A+O=O+A

4. A + (-A) = -A + A = O

Definition 7: If A is a matrix and r is a scalar (real number), then we define the scalar product

rA as the matrix obtained when every entry of A is multiplied by r.

Example 7: Let then

i.

Properties of scalar multiplication: If A and B are matrices of the same size and r and s are
scalars, then the following rules (which we assume without proof) hold:

1. r(A+B) = rA + rB

2. (r+s)A = rA + sA

3. (rs)A = r(sA)

4. 1.A = A
Definition: (Identity matrix)

A square matrix with diagonal entries equal to one and other entries zero is called an identity
matrix and denoted by I.

Example 8:

1. is a 2 x 2 identity matrix.

2. is a 3 x 3 identity matrix.
Exercise:

1. Solve the following equations for a, b, c and d.

(i)

2. Let A and B be 4 x 2 matrices and let C and D be 3 x 3 matrices. Which of the following

expressions are defined? If defined, give the size of the resulting matrix.

(a) B + A (b) A + C (c) 3D + 2D (d) A – D (e) 2C – 7D.

3. Let Calculate, if defined,

(a) A – 2B (b) 2C (c) 2A + 3C (d) –A +4C (e) B – C (f) A + (2B + C) (g) 2(A - B)
4. Let Calculate, if possible,

(a) A - (B - C) (b) C + 2(A – B) (c) 3A – 2(A – C)

5. If find the matrix C such that

(a) A + 2C = 0, (b) 2B – C = 0 (c) A + 2C = 3B.

6. Can you find real numbers r and s so that

(a)

(b)
7. Every year a game reserve does a survey of the number of impala, blesbock, zebras and giraffes

in the reserve. In 2010 there were 75 impala ewes and 50 rams, 33 blesbok ewes and 21 rams, 12

zebra mares and 7 stallions, 8 giraffe cows and 5 bulls. A year later there were 85 impala ewes and

58 rams, 29 blesbock ewes and 24 rams, 15 zebra mares and 9 stallions, 8 giraffe cows and 6 bulls.

(a) Draw up two matrices A and B, for 2010 and 2011 respectively, in which the columns

represent the different kinds of animals and the rows the number of females, number of males

and total number of animals.

(b) Compute S where S = B - A.

(c) What does the matrix S represent?

(d) What is the meaning of a negative number and a zero in S, respectively?

Matrix Multiplication:
Following the example of the definition of matrix addition, it seems natural to define matrix
multiplication by multiplying the corresponding entries.

Definition: Let A be an m x n matrix and B be an n x r matrix. The product AB is an m x r matrix

of which the ij-th entry is obtained by first multiplying the entries of the i-th row of A and the
corresponding entries of the j-th column of B and then adding the products obtained.

Examples:

1. Let .

Solution:
2. Let

Solution: A is a 2 x 3 matrix and B is a 3 x 3 matrix. Clearly, AB is a 2 x 3 matrix, but BA is

undefined.

Now
3. Let

Solution:

Thus, AB and BA are both defined, but AB .

4. Let

Solution: Show that

Remark 1: We also know in the arithmetic of numbers that if ab = 0,then a = 0 or b = 0.

In the case of matrices, we may get the following:

Example: Let

But

Notice that once again,

Remark 2: The cancellation rule is well-known in arithmetic of numbers,

i.e. if ab = ac and a 0 then b = c. But this rule is not true for matrices either:
Example: Let then

AB = Therefore, AB = AC and

Properties of matrix multiplication: Let A, B and C be matrices so that the products below are
defined. Let r be any scalar (real number) then

1. A(BC) = (AB)C (Associative rule of matrix multiplication)

2. A(B+C) = AB+AC (Distributive rule)

3. (A+B)C = AC+BC (Distributive rule)

4. A(rB) = r(AB) = (rA)B

Example: Let

Then find

1. A(BC) and (AB)C

2. A(B+C) and AB + AC

3. (B + C)D and BD + CD

4. A(rD), r(AD) and (rA)D

Solution: 1. A(BC) =
3.

5. Let , then A is 2 x 3 matrix.

and

In general: If A is an m x n matrix, then

Definition: If A is a square n x n matrix, we define , with k a positive integer as

Exercises:
Systems of Linear Equations:
Methods for solving systems of two linear equations in two unknowns such as

were treated at school. We now study systems consisting of possibly more than two equations
or containing more than two unknowns and then consider a few applications.

Definition 1: An equation of the form and a and b are not both zero, is called a linear equation in
two unknowns x and y.

Definition 2: An equation of the form

where and are not all zero is called a linear equation in the unknown
Examples: are examples of linear equations, but 2xy – 3z = 1,

Definition 3: A general system of m linear equations with n unknowns and coefficients can be
written as

where are the unknowns , are the coefficients and

are the constant terms.

Examples : 1. Two equations that share the variables x and y:

2. Consider the system of equation

The solution is (x, y, z) = (1, -2, -2)

A solution of a linear system is an assignment of values to the variables, such that each of the
equation is satisfied. The set of all possible solution is called the solution set.

A linear system may behave in any one of three possible ways:

1. The system has infinitely many solutions.

2. The system has a single unique solution

3. The system has no solution.

Definition: A system of linear equations without solutions, is called an inconsistent system and a
system of linear equations with one or more solutions is said to be a consistent system.

Example: Consider the system . This system clearly has no solution, because the two

equations contradict one another (6 = 7). Inconsistent system.

For any given system we must therefore be able to determine whether it is consistent or
inconsistent; if it is consistent, we must be able to find the solution(s).

The method we shall follow, is to keep on substituting the given system by a system having the
same solution(s), but which is easier to solve.

Definition: Any of the following operations, called elementary row operations, when applied to a

system of linear equations, will leave the solutions of the system unchanged:

1. Exchanging two equations.

2. Multiplying an equation by a nonzero constant.

3. Substituting any equation by the sum of itself and a multiple or another equation in the
system.
Example: Solve

Solution: It is easier to work with a system where the coefficient of the first unknown, , in the
first equation is ”1”.

Exchange the first and second equations:

Multiply the (new) equation 1 by -1 so that the coefficient of x1 is equal to one.

Now use the first equation to eliminate the unknown x1 from the second and third equation:

It is easier to work with a system where the coefficient of the second unknown, x2, in the second
equation is ”1”.
Now use the second equation to eliminate the unknown x2 from the third equation:

We say the system is in row echelon form.

We used back substitution to solve the system. From E3 it follows that x3 = 0.

Now substitute this value into the second equation:

Now substitute x3 = 0 and x2 = - 4 into the first equation of the last system.
x1 = - 1 - x2 + 3x3 = -1 + 4 +3(0) = 3.

The objective of the process executed above, is to primarily ensure that the coefficient of

(that is, the number preceding) the first unknown is 1 by either changing the order of the given
equations or multiplying by a suitable number. Suitable multiples of this (new) first equation is
then subtracted from the other equations to eliminate the first unknown of each of them. The
first equation is then ignored, and the same process is repeated on the rest of the system until
each equation has at least one unknown less than the one above it. We will write a system of
linear equations as a matrix. The system in the previous example can be written as a
matrix called augmented matrix.
In the augmented matrix we only write down the coefficients and not the unknowns.

We do not use the equality signs either - the constants following the equality signs are simply filled in
after a vertical line.

Example: 1. Solve

Solution: We write down the augmented matrix.

We will use the elementary row operations to simplify the augmented matrix. We will write

down every row operation that we use.

As we have done before, we use the ”1” in the first row and first column to eliminate the

unknown x1 from the second and third equations (rows).

There must be a ”1” in the second row and second column.

As we have done before, we use the ”1” in the second row and second column to eliminate the
unknown x2 from the third equation (row).
We use back substitution to solve the system: from E3 follows that x3 = -1.

Substitution x3 = -1 in E2: x2 = -1 + x3 = -1 -1 = - 2.

Substitution x3 = -1 and x2 = -2 in E1 : x1 = 4 + 2x2 – x3 = 4 + 2(-2) - (-1) = 1.

Therefore, the solution of the system is x1 = 1, x2 = -2, x3 = -1.

The process we applied is called Gauss reduction or elimination.

Definition:(Row echelon form) A matrix is in row echelon form if it satisfies two conditions:

1. All rows containing only zeros appear below rows with nonzero entries.

2. The first nonzero entry in any row appears in a column to the right of the first nonzero entry
in any preceding row.
Examples:

1. Consider the augmented matrix

is in row-echelon form.

2. Solve

Solution: The augmented matrix is

The augmented matrix is now in row-echelon form and write down the system of equations

We use back substitution to solve the system: from , let then

x3 = -2 - x4 = -2 – t, x2 = 3 + x3 + x4 = 3 – 2 – t + t = 1 and x1 = 6 - 2x2 + 3x4 = 6 – 2 + 3t = 4 + 3t.

Therefore, the solution of the system is x1 = 4 +3t, x2 = 1, x3 = -2 – t and x4 = t for .

This means that the system is consistent and has infinitely many solutions, for there is a different
set of values for the unknowns satisfying the system for each real number.
3. Solve

Solution:

Rewriting the final row in equation form again, it follows that 0 = - 3. Since this is false, it means
that there are no values of x1, x2 and x3 satisfying all equations, that is, the system is inconsistent.
Exercises:

1. Consider the system of linear equations

2. Write down the augmented matrix of each of the following systems:

(a) (b)
 (c) (d)

3. For which value(s) of the constant k will the system be

4. Solve the following systems of linear equations, if possible:

(a) (b)