Detection of Radioactivity

Characteristics of the Three Types of Emission

Nuclear Reactions
Half-Life
Uses of Radioactive Isotopes Including Safety Precautions

RADIOACTIVITY

Radioactivity 1
Detection of radioactivity
Describe the detection of alpha-particles, beta-particles and gamma-rays
by appropriate methods.

Radioactivity 2
Radioactivity

 Radioactivity is the process whereby unstable

atomic nuclei release energetic subatomic
particles.
 Radioactivity was first discovered in 1896 by
the French scientist Henri Becquerel, after
which the SI unit for radiation, the Becquerel,
is named.

Radioactivity 3
Detection of Radioactivity

 Radiation can not be detected with our five

senses, special detectors are therefore needed.
 Several devices have been developed to detect
radioactivity, with the earliest being an unexposed
photographic plate placed in the vicinity of a
source being detected.
 Other devices include:
 the cloud chamber,
 electroscopes,
 the Geiger-Müller tube
Radioactivity 5
Geiger-Müller tube
 It was named for Hans Geiger who invented the device in 1908 and Walther
Müller who collaborated with Geiger in developing further in 1928

Radioactivity 6
Radioactivity 7
Characteristics of the three
types of emission
State and explain the random emission of radioactivity in direction and
time.

Radioactivity 8
Nuclear Radiation

 Most nuclei are stable, but some are unstable

which will emit a tiny particle called nuclear
radiation.
 The emission occurs spontaneously and
randomly over space and time.
Characteristics of the three
types of emission
State, for radioactive emissions, their nature, relative ionising effects and
relative penetrating powers.

Radioactivity 10
Alpha Particle
 Alpha particles are a highly ionising form of particle
radiation. In cloud chamber they produce thick straight
tracks.
 They consist of two protons and two neutrons bound
together into a particle identical to a helium nucleus;
hence, it can be written as He2+.
 As its ionising power is so high it does not penetrate
very deeply into matter before its energy has been used
up. Its penetrating power is therefore very low
(absorbed by 10 cm of air, 0.01 mm lead or a sheet of
paper).
Radioactivity 11
Beta Particle

 Beta particles are high-energy, high-speed

electrons emitted by certain types of
radioactive nuclei such as potassium-40.
 The beta particles emitted are a form of
ionising radiation also known as beta rays.
 The high energy electrons have greater range
of penetration than alpha particles, but still
much less than gamma rays.

Radioactivity 12
Gamma Ray
 Gamma rays are forms of electromagnetic radiation
(EMR) or light emissions of a specific frequency
produced from sub-atomic particle interaction and
radioactive decay.
 Gamma rays are generally characterized as EMR,
having the highest frequency and energy, and also
the shortest wavelength, within the
electromagnetic radiation spectrum.
 Its ionising power is so low it penetrates very deeply
into matter before its energy has been used up.
Radioactivity 13
Characteristics of the three
types of emission
Describe the deflection of radioactive emissions in electric fields and
magnetic fields.

Radioactivity 14
 The products of radioactivity could be
analyzed into three distinct species by either
a magnetic field or an electric field.

Radioactivity 15
type of radiation alpha particles (α) beta particle (β) gamma rays (γ)
each particle is 2 each particle is an electromagnetic
protons + 2 neutrons electron (created waves similar to X-
(it is identical to a when the nucleus rays
nucleus of helium-4) decays)
relative charge +2 –1 0
compared with
charge on proton
ionising effect strong weak very weak
penetrating effect not very penetrating, but very penetrating,
penetrating: stopped by a few never completely
stopped by a thick millimetres of stopped, though
sheet of paper, by aluminium or other lead and thick
skin or by a few metal concrete will reduce
centimetres of air intensity
effect of field deflected by deflected by not deflected by
magnetic and magnetic and magnetic or electric
electric field electric field fields

Radioactivity 16
Nuclear reactions
Explain what is meant by radioactive decay.

Radioactivity 17
Radioactive Decay

 It is process of spontaneous transformation of a

radionuclide by the emission of nuclear radiation.
 The emission of the nuclear radiation is a purely
random event. It cannot be predicted exactly
when an atom will decay, only that a certain
number will decay in a given time.
 The rate of decay depends on the number of
undecayed nuclei present, so with each decay
event there is a decrease in the activity of a
radioactive sample.
Radioactivity 18
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
Use the nuclide notation to construct equations where radioactive decay
leads to changes in the composition of the nucleus.

Radioactivity 19
Nuclear Equation
 Nuclear equations can be used to show the decay process.
 These must balance for nucleon number and proton number.
 Alpha decay
 When alpha decay occurs a group of two protons and two neutrons (helium
nucleus) comes out of the nucleus. Therefore the proton number decreases
by 2 but the nucleon number decreases by 4. The resulting daughter nucleus
is of an element 2 positions to the left of the 'parent' in the periodic table.

238 234 4
 Look at the numbers on92 U Th  He
the top line90(the nucleon
2 numbers).
▪ 238 = 234 + 4. Therefore the nucleon numbers balance
 Look at the numbers on the bottom line (the proton numbers).
▪ 92 = 90 + 2. Therefore the proton numbers balance

Radioactivity 20
 Beta decay
 When beta decay occurs a neutron within the nucleus emits the
particle and changes into a proton. Therefore the proton number
increases by one but the nucleon number stays the same. The
resulting daughter nucleus is of an element 1 position to the right.
14 14 0
6 C N  β
7 -1

 Look at the numbers on the top line (the nucleon numbers).

▪ 14 = 14 + 0 Therefore the nucleon numbers balance
 Look at the numbers on the bottom line (the proton numbers).
▪ 6 = 7 + (-1) Therefore the proton numbers balance

Radioactivity 21
 Gamma Emission
 Sometimes, after its emission of an alpha, beta or
positron particle, the nucleus is still in an excited
state, called a metastable state.
 In order to get to a lower energy state it emits a
quantum of energy in the form of a gamma ray.

Radioactivity 22
Problem Solving 1
Problem Solving 2
Nuclear reactions
Explain the processes of fusion and fission.

Radioactivity 25
Nuclear Reaction

 Nuclear fusion is the process by which

multiple atomic nuclei join together to form a
heavier nucleus. It is accompanied by the
release or absorption of energy.
 Nuclear fission is a process in nuclear physics
in which the nucleus of an atom splits into
two or more smaller nuclei as fission
products, and usually some by-product
particles.
Radioactivity 26
Nuclear reactions
Describe, with the aid of a block diagram, one type of fission reactor for
use in a power station.

Radioactivity 27
Nuclear Reactor

 A nuclear reactor produces and controls the

release of energy from splitting the atoms of
uranium.
 Uranium-fuelled nuclear power is a clean and
efficient way of boiling water to make steam
which drives turbine generators.
Chain Reaction

 In the reactor core the

uranium-235 isotope fissions
or splits, producing a lot of
heat in a continuous process
called a chain reaction.
 The process depends on the
presence of a moderator
such as water or graphite,
and is fully controlled.
Energy Transformation
 Fuel produces heat,
which is used to boil
water to make steam.
 Steam spins a turbine.
 Turbine drives a
generator and the
generator makes
electricity.
 Electricity goes to the
transformers to produce
the correct voltage.
Nuclear reactions
Discuss theories of star formation and their energy production by fusion.

Radioactivity 31
Stars Formation

 Stars are the most widely recognized

astronomical objects, and represent the most
fundamental building blocks of galaxies.
 Stars form when enough dust and gas clump
together because of gravitational forces.
 Gravity pulls the dust and gas together.
 As the gas falls together, it gets hot.
 A star forms when it is hot enough for nuclear reactions
to start.
 This releases energy, and keeps the star hot.
Stars Energy Source
 The Sun and other stars use nuclear fusion to release
energy.
 During most of a star's lifetime, hydrogen nuclei fuse
together to form helium nuclei.
1. Which line in the table describes the nature
of an α-particle and of a γ-ray?

A
2. What is a β-particle and from which part of a
radioactive atom is it emitted?

A
3. Which row describes the properties of α-
particles?

B
4. Which is the correct comparison of the
penetrating power and ionising power of
alpha-particles and gamma radiation?

C
5. The diagram shows the paths of three
different types of radiation, X, Y and Z.
1. Which row in the table correctly identifies X,
Y and Z?

B
6. A student investigates a radioactive source
that emits only alpha-particles. Without any
source nearby, the detector shows a low
reading.
7. The source and thick cardboard are placed
near the detector, as shown.
1. What is the reading on the detector now,
and why?

A
7. S is a radioactive source emitting α-
particles, β-particles and γ-rays. A detector
is placed 5 cm away from S. A thin sheet of
paper is placed as shown in the diagram.
1. Which radiations can be detected?
A. α-particles and β-particles only
B. α-particles and γ-rays only
C. β-particles and γ-rays only
D. α-particles, β-particles and γ-rays
8. Which travels in a straight line across a
magnetic field?
A. alpha-particle
B. electron
C. gamma-ray
D. proton
9. A radioactive source emits alpha-particles,
beta-particles and gamma-rays. A Geiger-
Müller tube and counter detect the
emissions, which pass through a thin sheet
of paper and a strong magnetic field.
1. What is detected by the Geiger-Müller tube?
A. alpha-particles and beta-particles
B. alpha-particles only
C. beta-particles and gamma-rays
D. beta-particles only
10. A student investigates the emission from an
unknown radioactive source. The source is
10 cm in front of a detector. A strong
magnetic field between the source and the
detector is then switched on.
1. The results are shown.
1. Which radioactive source produced these
results?

C
11. Which statement is true for all three types of
radioactive emission (alpha-particles, beta-
particles and gamma-rays)?
A. They are completely absorbed by a thin
aluminium sheet.
B. They are deflected by electric fields.
C. They emit light.
D. They ionise gases.
12. The diagram shows five atoms in a
radioactive substance. The atoms each give
out an α-particle.
1. Atom 1 is the first to give out a particle.
Atom 3 is the second to give out a particle.
2. Which atom will give out the next particle?
A. atom 2
B. atom 4
C. atom 5
D. impossible to tell
13. What occurs in the decay of a radioactive
nucleus?
A. The nucleus absorbs another nucleus.
B. The nucleus absorbs at least one form of
radiation.
C. The nucleus always splits into two equal
fragments.
D. The nucleus emits at least one form of radiation.
14. A uranium nucleus emits an α-particle.
15. What are the new nucleon and proton
numbers?

D
15. A nucleus is represented by . It emits one
alpha-particle and then one beta-particle.
16. What is the resulting nucleus X?

C
16. In one radioactive decay, radium (Ra) gives
rise to radon (Rn) as shown.
1. What particle is also produced?
A. an alpha-particle
B. a beta-particle
C. both an alpha-particle and a beta-particle
D. no particle but only gamma-rays
Half-life
Explain what is meant by the term half-life.

Radioactivity 62
Half-Life

 Half-life is the time taken for half of

radioactive nuclei to decay.
 It is also define as the time taken for the
count rate to fall to half of its original
reading.
Half-life
Make calculations based on half-life which might involve information in
tables or shown by decay curves.

Radioactivity 64
Decay Curve
Problem solving

1. A radioactive element has a half-life of 40 minutes. The

initial count rate was 1000 per minute. How long will it
take for the count rate to drop to (a) 250 per minute and
(b) 125 per minute?
2. A radiation counter is set up and a background count of
20 counts per minute is recorded. A radioactive sample is
placed less than a centimetre from the detector and the
counter then records 820 counts per minute. After 20
min, the count rate falls to 420 counts per minute. What
would you expect the count rate to be 60 min after
placing the radioactive sample in front of the detector.
Radioactivity 66
3. The half-life of a radioactive element is 4 days. How long does
it take for 20 g for a sample of the radioactive element to
decay to 5 g.
4. A radioactive element has a half-life of 5 days. If the mass of a
sample of the element is 32 g, what mass of the element is left
after 20 days?
5. The table below shows how the activity of a radioactive source
varies with time as recorded using a G-M tube and ratemeter.
Time (minute) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Counts per minute 4000 2800 2000 1440 1000 720 500

6. Determine the half-life of the radioactive source.

Radioactivity 67
6. Radioisotopes Y has a half-life of 2000 years.
How long will it take the activity of a sample
Y to decrease to one-eight of its initial
value?
7. A sample radioactive substance contains
200 undecayed atoms. How many will
remain after 3 half-lives?
8. A radioactive source has a half-life of 30
minutes. What fraction is left after 2 hours?
Radioactivity 68
9. The graph shows the rapid decay of a very
unstable radioactive isotope in terms of
count rate per minute (cpm) versus minutes.
From the graph
determine the
time it takes for
half of the
radioactive atoms
to decay.
10. Determine the half-life of a nuclide from a
decay curve.
Uses of radioactive isotopes
including safety precautions
Describe how radioactive materials are moved, used and stored in a safe
way.

Radioactivity 71
Handling Radioactive Material

 We cannot do much to reduce our exposure

to natural background radiation, but great
care is needed when handling radioactive
materials. Precautions include:

Radioactivity 72
 wearing protective clothing

Radioactivity 73
 keeping as far away as is practicable - for
example, by using tongs or robotic arms.

Radioactivity 74
 keeping radioactive materials in lead-lined
containers, labelled with the appropriate
hazard symbol.

Radioactivity 75
 keeping your exposure time as short as
possible

Radioactivity 76
Uses of radioactive isotopes
including safety precautions
Discuss the way in which the type of radiation emitted and the half-life
determine the use for the material.

Radioactivity 77
Medical Tracer

 A radioactive isotope is introduced into a living

system, where it flows along the bloodstream,
following the path of chemical processes therein.
 It is easily detected using a scanner or Geiger
counter. The scanner take pictures and are run
together in rapid succession, giving physicians a
movie-like view of the isotope's path.
 When the procedure is finished the isotope is
flushed out of the body along with other waste
products.
Radioactivity 78
Iodine-131

 A common procedure is the injection of iodine-131

for the observation of the thyroid gland.
 A healthy thyroid will accumulate any iodine
entering the body.
 When a physician scans the patient, if iodine-131 is
present in the thyroid, the gland is working
properly.
 However, if the trace element has not collected in
the thyroid, the physician knows the gland is
failing.
Radioactivity 80
Radioactivity 81
Leak Detector

 A method for determining the position of a leak in

a conduit or pipeline.
 Short-lived radioisotope is inserted into the
conduit or pipeline and is caused to move along it
by pressuring up the conduit or pipeline from one
or both ends thereof with fluid, for example water.
 The carrier body travels to the leak but no further
and its location is detected from outside the
conduit or pipeline using a radiation detector.

Radioactivity 82
Radioactivity 83
Manufacturing
 A source of beta radiation is used to pass beta particles
through the paper.
 A detector on the other side of the paper detects the beta
particles that pass through.
 The detector is connected to a hydraulic control via a
processor unit.
 If the radiation level detected drops it means the paper is too
thick so the hydraulic control pushes rollers closer together
in order to reduce the paper thickness.
 If the radiation level detected increases it means the paper is
too thin so the hydraulic control pulls the rollers apart so the
paper thickness can be increased.
Radioactivity 84
Radioactivity 85
Uses of radioactive isotopes
including safety precautions
Discuss the origins and effect of background radiation.

Radioactivity 86
Uses of radioactive isotopes
including safety precautions
Discuss the dating of objects by the use of 14C.

Radioactivity 87
Carbon Dating
 Radiocarbon dating uses the amount of Carbon 14
(C14) available in living creatures as a measuring stick.
 All living things maintain a content of carbon 14 in
equilibrium with that available in the atmosphere,
right up to the moment of death. When an organism
dies, the amount of C14 available within it begins to
decay at a half life rate of 5700 years
 Comparing the amount of C14 in a dead organism to
available levels in the atmosphere, produces an
estimate of when that organism died.

Radioactivity 88
Problem Solving

Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years.

1. Cro-Magnon man is one of our ancestors. Five adult skeletons
were found near Les Eyzies in France. A 1 g sample of
charcoal from this site produced a radioactive count of 0.5
counts per minute. A modern sample of charcoal of same
mass produces a count rate of 32 counts per minute. Both
counts were corrected for background radiation. How long
ago did Cro-Magnon man live?
2. A 10-g sample of wood cut recently from a living tree has an
activity of 160 counts/minute. A piece of charcoal taken from
a prehistoric campsites also weighs 10 g but has an activity of
40 counts/minute. Estimate the age of the charcoal.
Radioactivity 89
3. A wooden post from an archaeological dig produces 150
counts per minute. Wood from an identical species of tree
currently alive gives 600 counts per minute. How long ago
did the wood from the archaeological dig die?
4. In a carbon-dating experiment a sample of wood from an
object was burnt and the carbon dioxide produced was
collected. The activity of the carbon dioxide was equivalent
to 2.25 count per minute per gram of carbon. When the
same experiment was repeated using wood from a modern
source, the corrected counts was 18 count per minute per
gram of carbon. What is the likely age of the find?
Uses of Carbon Dating

 Carbon dating can be used on anything which

used to be alive.
 Examples are
 Animal (or human) remains, including skin, fur and
bone.
 Plant remains, including wood, natural fibres
(cotton, silk, wool, cloth, rope), seeds and pollen
grains.
 Some fossils can be dated this way if they still contain
some of the original carbon of the plant or animal.
Radioactivity 91
Limitations of Carbon Dating
 Carbon dating cannot be used on things which have never
lived.
 Examples are brick, rock and metal.
 The amount of carbon-14 in samples is very small and after 9
or 10 half-lives the amount of radioactivity which is emitted
by the sample is too tiny for an accurate count rate to be
measured.
 Therefore carbon dating cannot be used to date samples which are
more than 50,000 to 60,000 years old.
 The method of carbon dating uses an assumption
that the amount of carbon-14 present in the past
is the same as that present in the environment today.
Radioactivity 92
1. A sample of radioactive isotope is decaying.
2. The nuclei of which atoms will decay first?
A. impossible to know, because radioactive decay is
random
B. impossible to know, unless the age of the material
is known
C. atoms near the centre, because they are
surrounded by more atoms
D. atoms near the surface, because the radiation can
escape more easily
2. The activity of a radioactive source is
measured over a period of time. The graph
shows the decay curve.
1. Why is the curve not smooth?
A. Background radiation has not been subtracted.
B. Radioactive decay is a random process.
C. The half-life is not constant.
D. The temperature is changing.
3. Which statement explains the meaning of
the half-life of a radioactive substance?
A. half the time taken for half the substance to
decay
B. half the time taken for the substance to decay
completely
C. the time taken for half the substance to decay
D. the time taken for the substance to decay
completely
4. A sample of radioactive uranium has mass 1
g. Another sample of the same material has
mass 2 g.
5. Which property is the same for both
samples?
A. the amount of radiation emitted per second
B. the half-life
C. the number of uranium atoms
D. the volume
5. A powder contains 400 mg of a radioactive
material that emits α-particles.
6. The half-life of the material is 5 days.
7. What mass of that material remains after 10
days?
A. 0 mg
B. 40 mg
C. 100 mg
D. 200 mg
6. A radioactive substance has a half-life of 2
weeks. At the beginning of an investigation the
substance emits 3000 β-particles per minute.
7. How many β-particles will it emit per minute
after 6 weeks?
A. 0
B. 375
C. 500
D. 1500
7. The half-life of a radioactive material is 24
years.
8. The activity of a sample falls to a fraction of
its initial value after 72 years.
9. What is the fraction?
A. 1/3
B. 1/4
C. 1/6
D. 1/8
8. The half-life of a radioisotope is 2400 years.
The activity of a sample is 720 counts / s.
9. How long will it take for the activity to fall to
90 counts / s?
A. 300 years
B. 2400 years
C. 7200 years
D. 19 200 years
9. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 5
hours. A sample is tested and found to contain
0.48 g of the substance.
10. How much of the substance was present in the
sample 20 hours before the sample was tested?
A. 0.03 g
B. 0.12 g
C. 1.92 g
D. 7.68 g
10. A radioactive element has a half-life of 70 s.
11. The number of emissions per second, N, of a
sample of the element is measured at a certain
time.
12. What was the number of emissions per second 70
s earlier?
A. 0
B. N / 2
C. N
D. 2N
11. The count-rate from a radioactive source
falls from 400 to 50 in 3.0 minutes.
12. What is the half-life?
A. 0.75 minutes
B. 1.0 minutes
C. 2.7 minutes
D. 8.0 minutes
12. A detector is used to measure the count-rate near
a radioactive source. The reading is 4000 counts
per minute. After 30 minutes the count-rate has
fallen to 500 counts per minute.
13. What is the half-life of the radioactive source? You
may ignore the effects of background radiation.
A. 3 minutes
B. 5 minutes
C. 6 minutes
D. 10 minutes
13. The count rates of four radioactive sources
were measured at the same time on three
consecutive days.
14. Which source has a half-life of two days?

B
14. The table shows details of two samples of
radioactive nuclides X and Y.
1. After how many days will the number of
atoms of nuclide X be equal to the number
of atoms of nuclide Y?
A. 2 days
B. 4 days
C. 6 days
D. 8 days
15. The graph shows the decay curve for one
particular radioactive nuclide.
1. What is the half-life of this nuclide?
A. 1.0 day
B. 1.5 days
C. 2.0 days
D. 2.5 days
16. Which row is correct for fission and for
fusion?

C
17. Which equation shows a nuclear fission
reaction?

D
18. Which material is commonly used as a lining
for a box for storing radioactive samples?
A. aluminium
B. copper
C. lead
D. uranium
19. When dealing with radioactive substances there are
possible dangers.
20. Which statement is correct?
A. Beta-particles can pass through skin and damage body
cells.
B. Gamma-radiation is more dangerous than alpha or beta
because it has a longer half-life.
C. Materials that emit only alpha-particles must be kept in
thick lead containers.
D. Radioactive materials are safe to handle after two half-
lives.
20. In the treatment of brain cancer, a patient’s
head is enclosed in a helmet containing a
number of radioactive sources. The radiation
from each source is directed towards the
cancer.
21. Which nuclide is the most suitable for these
sources?
A