AS Psychology
OBSERVATIONS, CASE STUDIES, RECORDING OF DATA
JOHNATHAN BARAKAT
9/23/2021
Observations
Observation (watching what people do) would seem to be an obvious method of carrying
out research in psychology. However, there are different types of observational methods
and distinctions need to be made between:
1. Controlled Observations
2. Naturalistic Observations
3. Participant Observations
Observations
In addition to the above categories observations can also be either overt/disclosed (the
participants know they are being studied) or covert/undisclosed (the research keeps their
real identity a secret from the research subjects, acting as a genuine member of the group).
In general, observations are relatively cheap to carry out and few resources are needed by
the researcher. However, they can often be very time consuming and longitudinal.
Controlled Observations
Controlled observations (usually a structured observation) are likely to be carried out in a
psychology laboratory.
The researcher decides where the observation will take place, at what time, with which
participants, in what circumstances and uses a standardized procedure. Participants are
randomly allocated to each independent variable group.
Controlled Observations
Rather than writing a detailed description of all behavior observed, it is often easier to code behavior
according to a previously agreed scale using a behavior schedule (i.e. conducting a structured observation).
The researcher systematically classifies the behavior they observe into distinct categories. Coding might
involve numbers or letters to describe a characteristic, or use of a scale to measure behavior intensity. The
categories on the schedule are coded so that the data collected can be easily counted and turned into
statistics.
Controlled Observations
Controlled observations are usually overt as the researcher explains the research aim to
the group, so the participants know they are being observed.
Controlled observations are also usually non-participant as the researcher avoids any
direct contact with the group, keeping a distance (e.g. observing behind a two-way
mirror).
Strengths
Controlled observations can be easily replicated by other researchers by using the same
observation schedule. This means it is easy to test for reliability.
The data obtained from structured observations is easier and quicker to analyze as it is
quantitative (i.e. numerical) - making this a less time-consuming method compared to
naturalistic observations.
Limitations
Controlled observations can lack validity due to the Hawthorne effect/demand
characteristics. When participants know they are being watched they may act differently.
Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other
social scientists.
This technique involves observing involves studying the spontaneous behavior of
participants in natural surroundings. The researcher simply records what they see in
whatever way they can.
Naturalistic Observation
In unstructured observations, the researcher records all relevant behavior without system.
There may be too much to record and the behaviors recorded may not necessarily be the
most important so the approach is usually used as a pilot study to see what type of
behaviors would be recorded.
Strengths
By being able to observe the flow of behavior in its own setting studies have greater
ecological validity.
Like case studies, naturalistic observation is often used to generate new ideas. Because it
gives the researcher the opportunity to study the total situation it often suggests avenues
of inquiry not thought of before.
Limitations
These observations are often conducted on a micro (small) scale and may lack a
representative sample (biased in relation to age, gender, social class or ethnicity). This
may result in the findings lacking the ability to be generalized to wider society.
Natural observations are less reliable as other variables cannot be controlled. This makes
it difficult for another researcher to repeat the study in exactly the same way.
Limitations
A further disadvantage is that the researcher needs to be trained to be able to recognize
aspects of a situation that are psychologically significant and worth further attention.
With observations, we do not have manipulations of variables (or control over extraneous
variables) which means cause and effect relationships cannot be established.
Participant Observations
Participant observation is a variant of the above (natural observations) but here the
researcher joins in and becomes part of the group they are studying to get a deeper insight
into their lives.
If it were research on animals we would now not only be studying them in their natural
habitat but be living alongside them as well!
Participant Observations
Participant observations can be either cover or overt. Covert is where the study is carried
out 'undercover'. The researcher's real identity and purpose are kept concealed from the
group being studied.
The researcher takes a false identity and role, usually posing as a genuine member of the
group.
On the other hand, overt is where the researcher reveals his or her true identity and
purpose to the group and asks permission to observe.
Limitations
It can be difficult to get time / privacy for recording. For example, with covert
observations researchers can’t take notes openly as this would blow their cover. This
means they have to wait until they are alone and rely on their memory. This is a problem
as they may forget details and are unlikely to remember direct quotations.
Limitations
If the researcher becomes too involved they may lose objectivity and become bias. There
is always the danger that we will “see” what we expect (or want) to see. This is a problem
as they could selectively report information instead of noting everything they observe.
Thus reducing the validity of their data.
Recording of Data
With controlled / structured observation studies an important decision the researcher has
to make is how to classify and record the data. Usually this will involve a method of
sampling. There are three sampling methods:
Event sampling
Time sampling
Instantaneous (target time) sampling
Recording of Data
Event sampling. The observer decides in advance what types of behavior (events) she is
interested in and records all occurrences. All other types of behavior are ignored.
Time sampling. The observer decides in advance that observation will take place only
during specified time periods (e.g. 10 minutes every hour, 1 hour per day) and records the
occurrence of the specified behavior during that period only.
Recording of Data
Instantaneous (target time) sampling. The observer decides in advance the pre-selected
moments when observation will take place and records what is happening at that instant.
Everything happening before or after is ignored.
Case Studies
A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly
every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of
behavior. Case studies can be used in a variety of fields including psychology, medicine,
education, anthropology, political science, and social work
The hope is that learning gained from studying one case can be generalized to many
others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective and it is sometimes
difficult to generalize results to a larger population.
Benefits & Limitations
A case study can have both strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these
pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.
One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate
things that are often difficult to impossible to replicate in a lab.
Benefits
Allows researchers to collect a great deal of information
Give researchers the chance to collect information on rare or unusual cases
Allows researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research
Limitations
Cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
May not be scientifically rigorous
Can lead to bias
Questions?
