Polynomial and

Polynomial Functions
Polynomial Function

A polynomial function of degree n

is a function of the form

P(x) = anxn + an – 1xn – 1 + … + a1x + a0

where:
• n is a nonnegative integer.
• an ≠ 0.
Coefficients

The numbers a0, a1, a2, …, an are called

the coefficients of the polynomial.

• The number a0 is the constant coefficient

or constant term.

• The number an, the coefficient of the highest

power, is the leading coefficient ,and the term
anxn is the leading term.
 Polynomials

We often refer to polynomial functions simply

as polynomials.

The following polynomial has degree 5,

leading coefficient 3, and constant term –6.

3x5 + 6x4 – 2x3 + x2 + 7x – 6

Polynomials

Here are some more examples of

polynomials:
Polynomial Functions
and Their Graphs
Graphing Basic Polynomial Functions
Graphs of Monomials

The simplest polynomial functions are

the monomials P(x) = xn, whose graphs
are shown.
 Graphs of Monomials

As the figure suggests, the graph of P(x) = xn

has the same general shape as:

• y = x2, when n is even.

• y = x3, when n is odd.
Graphs of Monomials

However, as the degree n becomes larger,

the graphs become flatter around the origin
and steeper elsewhere.
 E.g. 1—Transformation of Monomials

Sketch the graphs of the following functions.

(a) P(x) = –x3

(b) Q(x) = (x – 2)4
(c) R(x) = –2x5 + 4

• We use the graphs in Figure 1 and transform

them using the techniques of Section 2.5.
E.g. 1—Transforming Monomials Example (a)

The graph of P(x) = –x3 is the reflection

of the graph of y = x3 in the x-axis.
E.g. 1—Transforming Monomials Example (b)

The graph of Q(x) = (x – 2)4 is the graph

of y = x4 shifted to the right 2 units.
E.g. 1—Transforming Monomials Example (c)

We begin with the graph of y = x5.

The graph of y = –2x5

is obtained by:

• Stretching the graph

vertically and reflecting it
in the x-axis.
 E.g. 1—Transforming Monomials Example (c)

Thus, the graph of y = –2x5 is the dashed blue

graph here.

Finally, the graph of

R(x) = –2x5 + 4 is
obtained by shifting
upward 4 units.

• It’s the red graph.

Graphs of Polynomial Functions: End Behavior
Graphs of Polynomial Functions: End Behavior

The graphs of polynomials of degree 0 or 1

are lines.

The graphs of polynomials of degree 2 are

parabolas.

• The greater the degree of a polynomial,

the more complicated its graph can be.
 Graphs of Polynomial Functions: End Behavior

However, the graph of a polynomial function is

continuous. This means that the graph has
no breaks or holes.
• The graph of a polynomial function is a
smooth curve; that is, it has no corners or
sharp points (cusps) as shown.
Graphs of Polynomial Functions: End Behavior

The end behavior of a polynomial is:

• A description of what happens as x

becomes large in the positive or negative
direction.
Graphs of Polynomial Functions: End Behavior

To describe end behavior, we use

the following notation:

• x→∞ means “x becomes large in

the positive direction”

• x → –∞ means “x becomes large in

the negative direction”
 Graphs of Polynomial Functions: End Behavior

For example, the monomial y = x2

in the figure has the following end
behavior:

• y→∞ as x→∞

• y→∞ as x → –∞
Graphs of Polynomial Functions: End Behavior

The monomial y = x3 in the figure has

the end behavior:

•y→∞ as x→∞

• y → –∞ as x → –∞
 Graphs of Polynomial Functions: End Behavior

For any polynomial the end behavior

is determined by the term that contains
the highest power of x.

• This is because, when x is large, the other

terms are relatively insignificant in size.
Graphs of Polynomial Functions: End Behavior

Next, we show the four possible types

of end behavior, based on:

• The highest power.

• The sign of its coefficient.

Graphs of Polynomial Functions: End Behavior

The end behavior of the polynomial

P(x) = anxn + an –1xn –1 + … + a1x + a0

is determined by:
The degree n.
The sign of the leading coefficient an.

• This is indicated in the following graphs.

Graphs of Polynomial Functions: End Behavior

P has odd degree:

Graphs of Polynomial Functions: End Behavior

P has even degree:

 E.g. 2—End Behavior of a Polynomial

Determine the end behavior of

the polynomial
P(x) = –2x4 + 5x3 + 4x – 7

• The polynomial P has degree 4 and leading

coefficient –2.

• Thus P has even degree and negative leading

coefficient.
E.g. 2—End Behavior of a Polynomial

So, it has the following end behavior of

P:
• y → –∞ as x→∞
• y → –∞ as x → –∞
 E.g. 3—End Behavior of a Polynomial

(a) Determine the end behavior of

the polynomial P(x) = 3x5 – 5x3 + 2x.

(b) Confirm that P and its leading term

Q(x) = 3x5 have the same end behavior
by graphing them together.
 E.g. 3—End Behavior Example (a)

Since P has odd degree and positive

leading coefficient, it has the following
end behavior:

• y→∞ as x→∞

• y → –∞ as x → –∞
Using Zeros to
Graph Polynomials
 Zeros of Polynomials

If P is a polynomial function, then c

is called a zero of P if P(c) = 0.

• In other words, the zeros of P are the solutions

of the polynomial equation P(x) = 0.
 Zeros of Polynomials

Note that, if P(c) = 0, the graph of P

has an x-intercept at x = c.

• So, the x-intercepts of the graph are

the zeros of the function.
 Real Zeros of Polynomials

If P is a polynomial and c is a real number,

then the following are equivalent:

1. c is a zero of P.
2. x = c is a solution of the equation P(x) = 0.
3. x – c is a factor of P(x).
4. x = c is an x-intercept of the graph of P.
Zeros of Polynomials

To find the zeros of a polynomial P,

we factor and then use the Zero-Product
Property.

• For example, to find the zeros of P(x) = x2 + x – 6,

we factor P to get:
P(x) = (x – 2)(x + 3)
 Zeros of Polynomials

From this factored form, we easily see that:

1. 2 is a zero of P.
2. x = 2 is a solution of the equation x2 + x – 6 = 0.
3. x – 2 is a factor of x2 + x – 6.
4. 2 is an x-intercept of the graph of P.

• The same facts are true for the other zero, –3.
Zeros of Polynomials

The following theorem has many

important consequences.

• Here, we use it to help us graph

polynomial functions.
Guidelines for Graphing Polynomial Functions

This observation allows us to

use the following guidelines to graph
polynomial functions.

1. Zeros
2. Test points
3. End behavior
4. Graph
Guideline 1 for Graphing Polynomial Functions

1. Zeros
• Factor the polynomial to find all its real zeros;

• These are the x-intercepts of the graph.

Guideline 2 for Graphing Polynomial Functions

2. Test points
• Make a table of values for the polynomial.

• Include test points to determine whether the graph

of the polynomial lies above or below the x-axis
on the intervals determined by the zeros.

• Include the y-intercept in the table.

Guidelines 3 and 4 for Graphing Polynomial Functions

3. End behavior
• Determine the end behavior of the polynomial.

4. Graph
• Plot the intercepts and other points you found
in the table.
• Sketch a smooth curve that passes through
these points and exhibits the required end
behavior.
E.g. 4—Using Zeros to Graph a Polynomial Function

Sketch the graph of the polynomial

function
P(x) = (x + 2)(x – 1)(x – 3)

• The zeros are x = –2, 1, and 3.

• These determine the intervals

(–∞, –2), (–2, 1), (1, 3), and
(3, ∞).
 E.g. 4—Using Zeros to Graph a Polynomial Function

Using test points in these

intervals, we get the information
in the following sign diagram
E.g. 4—Using Zeros to Graph a Polynomial Function

Plotting a few additional points and

connecting them with a smooth curve helps
us complete the graph.
 E.g. 5—Finding Zeros and Graphing a Polynomial Function

Let P(x) = x3 – 2x2 – 3x.

(a) Find the zeros of P.

(b) Sketch a graph of P.

E.g. 5—Finding Zeros Example (a)

To find the zeros, we factor completely.

P ( x )  x 3  2x 2  3 x
 x( x 2  2 x  3) Factor x
 x( x  3)( x  1) Factor quadratic

• Thus, the zeros are x = 0, x = 3, and x = –1.

 E.g. 5—Graphing Polynomials Example (b)

The x-intercepts are x = 0, x = 3, and x = –1.

The y-intercept is P(0) = 0.

• We make a table of values

of P(x), making sure that we
choose test points between
(and to the right and left of)
successive zeros.
 E.g. 5—Graphing Polynomials Example (b)

Since P is of odd degree and its leading

coefficient is positive, it has the following
end behavior:

• y→∞ as x→∞
• y → –∞ as x → –∞
E.g. 5—Graphing Polynomials Example (b)

We plot the points in the table and connect

them by a smooth curve to complete the
graph.
 E.g. 6—Finding Zeros and Graphing a Polynomial Function

Let P(x) = –2x4 – x3 + 3x2

(a) Find the zeros of P.

(b) Sketch the graph of P.

E.g. 6—Finding Zeros Example (a)

To find the zeros, we factor completely:

P ( x )  2 x 4  x 3  3 x 2
2 2
  x (2 x  x  3) Factor  x
2

2
  x (2 x  3)( x  1) Factor quadratic

• Thus, the zeros are x = 0, x =  2 , and x = 1.

3
E.g. 6—Graphing a Polynomial Example (b)

The x-intercepts are x = 0, x =  32 , and x = 1.

The y-intercept is P(0) = 0.

• We make a table of values

of P(x), making sure we choose
test points between (and to
the right and left of) successive
zeros.
 E.g. 6—Graphing a Polynomial Example (b)

Since P is of even degree and its leading

coefficient is negative, it has the following
end behavior:

• y → –∞ as x→∞

• y → –∞ as x → –∞
E.g. 6—Graphing a Polynomial Example (b)

We plot the points from the table and

connect the points by a smooth curve to
complete the graph in Figure 9.
 E.g. 7—Finding Zeros and Graphing a Polynomial

Let P(x) = x3 – 2x2 + 4x + 8.

(a) Find the zeros of P.

(b) Sketch the graph of P.

 E.g. 7—Finding Zeros Example (a)

To find the zeros, we factor completely:

P ( x )  x 3  2x 2  4 x  8
 x 2 ( x  2)  4( x  2) Group and factor
 ( x 2  4)( x  2) Factor x  2
 ( x  2)( x  2)( x  2) Difference of squares
 ( x  2)( x  2)2 Simplify

• Thus, the zeros are x = –2 and x = 2.

E.g. 7—Graphing a Polynomial Example (b)

The x-intercepts are x = –2 and x = 2.

The y-intercept is P(0) = 8.

• The table gives additional

values of P(x).
 E.g. 7—Graphing a Polynomial Example (b)

Since P is of odd degree and its leading

coefficient is positive, it has the following
end behavior:

• y→∞ as x→∞

• y → –∞ as x → –∞
 E.g. 7—Graphing a Polynomial Example (b)

We connect the points by a smooth

curve to complete the graph.
Shape of the Graph
Near a Zero
Zero of a Polynomial

Although x = 2 is a zero of the polynomial

in Example 7, the graph does not cross
the x-axis at the x-intercept 2.

• The factor (x – 2)2 corresponding to that zero

is raised to an even power.
• So, it doesn’t change sign as we test points
on either side of 2.
• Similarly, the graph does not cross the x-axis
at x = 0 in Example 6.
 Zero of Multiplicity m

In general, if c is a zero of P and the

corresponding factor x – c occurs exactly m
times in the factorization of P, then we say
that:

• c is a zero of multiplicity m.
 Zero of Multiplicity m

By considering test points on either side

of the x-intercept c, we conclude that
the graph:

• Crosses the x-axis at c if the multiplicity m

is odd.

• Does not cross the x-axis if m is even.

Zero of Multiplicity m

Moreover, it can be shown, using

calculus, that:

• Near x = c, the graph has the same

general shape as the graph of y = A(x – c)m.
 Shape of the Graph Near a Zero of Multiplicity
m
Suppose that c is a zero of P of multiplicity m.

• Then, the shape of the graph of P near c is as

follows.
E.g. 8—Graphing a Polynomial Using its Zeros

Graph the polynomial

P(x) = x4(x – 2)3(x + 1)2

• The zeros of P are –1, 0, and 2, with

multiplicities 2, 4, and 3, respectively.
E.g. 8—Graphing a Polynomial Using its Zeros

The zero 2 has odd multiplicity.

• Thus, the graph crosses the x-axis at

the x-intercept 2.

The zeros 0 and –1 have even multiplicity.

• So, the graph does not cross the x-axis

at the x-intercepts 0 and –1.
E.g. 8—Graphing a Polynomial Using its Zeros

Since P is a polynomial of degree 9

and has positive leading coefficient,
it has the following end behavior:

• y→∞ as x→∞

• y → –∞ as x → –∞
E.g. 8—Graphing a Polynomial Using its Zeros

With that information and a table of values,

we sketch the graph.
Local Maxima and Minima
of Polynomials
 Local Maxima and Minima of Polynomials

Recall from Section 2.3 that:

• If the point (a, f(a)) is the highest point on the graph
of f within some viewing rectangle, then f(a) is
a local maximum value of f.

• If (b, f(b)) is the

lowest point on
the graph of f
within a viewing
rectangle, then
f(b) is a local
minimum value.
 Local Maximum and Minimum Points

Such a point (a, f(a)) is a local maximum

point on the graph.
Such a point (b, f(b)) is a local minimum
point.
 Local Extrema

The local maximum and minimum points

on the graph of a function is called its local
extrema.

• For a polynomial function, the number of local

extrema must be less than the degree, as
the following principle indicates.

• A proof of this principle requires calculus.

 Local Extrema of Polynomials

If P(x) = anxn + an–1xn–1 + … + a1x + a0

is a polynomial of degree n, then
the graph of P has at most n – 1
local extrema.
Local Extrema of Polynomials

A polynomial of degree n may in fact

have less than n – 1 local extrema.

• For example, P(x) = x5 has no local extrema,

although it is of degree 5.
Local Extrema of Polynomials

The principle tells us only that:

• A polynomial of degree n can have

no more than n – 1 local extrema.
 E.g. 9—The Number of Local Extrema

Graph the polynomial and determine how

many local extrema it has.
(a) P1(x) = x4 + x3 – 16x2 – 4x + 48

(b) P2(x) = x5 + 3x4 – 5x3 – 15x2 + 4x – 15

(c) P3(x) = 7x4 + 3x2 – 10x

 E.g. 9—Number of Local Extrema Example (a)

P1 has two local minimum points and one

local maximum point, for a total of three
local extrema.
 E.g. 9—Number of Local Extrema Example (b)

P2 has two local minimum points and two

local maximum points, for a total of four
local extrema.
E.g. 9—Number of Local Extrema Example (c)

P3 has just one local extremum, a local

minimum.