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CATHOLIC Start
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WRITING RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
QUARTER 1 MONTH 1

Subject : PRACTICAL RESEARCH II PRESENTED MS. LAURA SAYURI B. AMZAH

BY:
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COMPETENCIES
01 02 03 04

choose appropriate describe sampling construct an plan data collection

quantitative research procedure and the instrument and procedure
design sample establishes its validity
and reliability

05 06

plan data analysis present written

using statistics and research methodology PRACTICAL RESEARCH II
hypothesis testing (if
appropriate)
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PERFORMANCE
TASK
Directions: Formulate your Questionnaire and Chapters 1-3 and be
prepared for floating of questionnaires. Further information will be
discussed in the class.

Subject : PRACTICAL RESEARCH II PREPARED by : Miss Laura Sayuri Amzah

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TYPES OF
RESEARCH
ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OF SUBJECT MATTER

BASIC RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH

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TYPES OF
RESEARCH
BASIC RESEARCH (a.k.a. Pure or Fundamental Research)

It is driven by a scientist’s curiosity or interest in a

scientific question. The main motivation is
expanding man’s knowledge, not creating or
inventing something.
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TYPES OF
RESEARCH
APPLIED RESEARCH

It is designed to solve practical problems, rather

than to gain knowledge.
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TYPES OF
RESEARCH
ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OF INFORMATION

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
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TYPES OF
RESEARCH
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
It is a systematic investigation of phenomena by
gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical,
mathematical, or computational techniques.
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TYPES OF
RESEARCH
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
It is a systematic investigation of phenomena by
presenting data through words and descriptions.
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TYPES OF
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
DESCRIPTIVE CORRELATIONAL
RESEARCH RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
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Descriptive Market
Research
This design aims to describe systematically the facts and
characteristics of a given population or area of interest,
factually and accurately
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TYPES

Descriptive -
Descriptive-Normative Comparative Descriptive-Survey
It is used when the It is a design where the It involves administering a
results/findings are researcher considers two survey to a sample or the
intended to be compared variables (not entire population of people to
with the norm. manipulated) and describe the attitudes,
establishes a formal opinions, behaviors, or
procedure to compare characteristics of the
and conclude that one is population
better than the other.
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TYPES

Observational methods Case Studies Survey research designs

are used to document and Involves an in-depth involves administering a
describe animal and human study of an individual or a survey to a sample or the
behavior in a natural or small group of individuals entire population of people to
artificial environment. describe the attitudes,
opinions, behaviors, or
characteristics of the
population
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Descriptive-Survey TYPES
Research Designs
Cross-sectional survey is used when the researcher Longitudinal survey designs involves the
Use it when… collects data at one point in time. The purpose is to survey procedure of collecting data about
• Describing trends examines current attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or trends with the same population, changes
• Determining practices in a cohort group or subpopulation, or
individual opinions changes in a panel group of the same
about policy issues Compare two or more groups in terms of attitudes, individuals over time.
• Identifying beliefs, opinions, or practices.
important beliefs
and attitudes of Evaluates a program.
individuals
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Correlational Research
A correlational research project would explore a link
between variables but without looking to apply cause and
effect reasoning.
 conducted to establish a relationship between two
closely-knit entities and how one impacts the other and
what are the changes that are eventually observed.
aims to describe and measure the degree of association
between two or more variables or sets of scores.
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TYPES

Explanatory research design Prediction research design seeks to

determines the extent to which identify variables that will predict an
two variables (or more) co-vary. outcome or criterion.

Co-vary means to predict a Variables can be the predictor variable or

score on one variable with the criterion variable.
knowledge about the
individual’s score on another
variable.
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Experimental Research
an analysis is done around proving or disproving the
statement.
An experiment tests an idea to determine whether it
influences an outcome.
Used when the researcher wants to establish possible
cause and effect between variables.
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Variables that cause change

in the subject.
Independent

Experimental variable

Research Dependent
variable Variables that bear or
manifest the effects caused
by the independent
variable.
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It is a measure that is administered

prior to an experimental treatment
Tests Pre-test or other intervention.
In
Experimental Research Posttest It is a measure that is administered
following an experiment or control
treatment or other intervention to
determine the effects of the
intervention.
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It is a group of research participants

who receive no treatment or an alternate
Groupings Control Group
treatment so that the effect of
unimportant variables can be
determined.
in an
Experimental Research Experimental
Group It is a group of research
participants who receive
treatment.
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Experimental Research TYPES

Designs

In true experiments, the Quasi-experiments include

researcher randomly assigns assignment, but not random
participants to different assignment of participants to
conditions of the experimental groups.
variable.
Experimental EG: O1 x O2
group
EG: R O1 x O2 CG: O1 x O2
(treatment CG: R O1 x O2
group)
post-
pretest
Control group test
(non-treatment treatment
group) Randomization
(assigning
individuals
randomly to
groups)
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NON-
EXPERIMENTAL
DESCRIBING STUDYING
CHARACTERISTIC RELATIONSHIPS
S

SURVEY/DESCRIPTIVE CORRELATIONAL
RESEARCH RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
MANIPULATING
CONDITIONS AND
STUDYING
EFFECTS
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Sampling Procedure
and the Sample
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Population and the Sample

The population is the entire group that you
want to draw conclusions about.

The sample is the specific group of

individuals that you will collect data from.

Sampling frame is the actual list of

individuals that the sample will be drawn
from.
Sample size is the number of individuals
you should include in your sample
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Probability and
Non-Probability Sampling
Probability sampling involves random
selection, allowing you to make strong
statistical inferences about the whole group.

Non-probability sampling involves

non-random selection based on convenience
or other criteria, allowing you to easily
collect data.
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Probability Non-Probability
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Probability Sampling
Simple random sampling Systematic sampling
In a simple random sample, every Every member of the population is listed
member of the population has an equal with a number, but instead of randomly
chance of being selected. Your sampling generating numbers, individuals are
frame should include the whole chosen at regular intervals.
population.

Stratified sampling Cluster sampling

Stratified sampling involves dividing the Cluster sampling also involves dividing the
population into subpopulations that may differ population into subgroups, but each subgroup
in important ways. It allows you draw more should have similar characteristics to the
precise conclusions by ensuring that every whole sample. Instead of sampling
subgroup is properly represented in the sample. individuals from each subgroup, you
randomly select entire subgroups.
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Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience Voluntary Purposive
sampling response sampling Snowball sampling
sampling
This type of If the population is hard to access,
sampling, also snowball sampling can be used to
A convenience Instead of the known as recruit participants via other
sample simply researcher judgement participants.
includes the choosing sampling, involves
individuals who participants and the researcher
happen to be directly using their Quota Sampling
most accessible contacting them, expertise to select a
to the researcher. people volunteer sample that is most You first divide the population
themselves useful to the into mutually exclusive subgroups
purposes of the (called strata) and then recruit
research. sample units until you reach your
quota.
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Reliability refers to the consistency

of a measure (whether the results
can be reproduced under the same
conditions).

Validity refers to the accuracy of a

measure (whether the results really
do represent what they are
supposed to measure).
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Reliability Validity
What does it tell The extent to which the results can be reproduced The extent to which the results really
you? when the research is repeated under the same measure what they are supposed to
conditions. measure.

How is it By checking the consistency of results across time, By checking how well the results
assessed? across different observers, and across parts of the test correspond to established theories and
itself. other measures of the same concept.

How do they A reliable measurement is not always valid: the results A valid measurement is generally
relate? might be reproducible, but they’re not necessarily reliable: if a test produces accurate
correct. results, they should be reproducible.
Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis means investigating trends, patterns,
and relationships using quantitative data. It is an
important research tool used by scientists, governments,
businesses, and other organizations.

Statistical hypothesis
A statistical hypothesis is a formal way of writing a
prediction about a population. Every research prediction
is rephrased into null and alternative hypotheses that can
be tested using sample data.
Null hypothesis
Null hypothesis always predicts no effect or no
relationship between variables.
Null Hypothesis: H0: There is no difference in
the salary of factory workers based on gender.

Alternative hypothesis
Alternative hypothesis states your research
prediction of an effect or relationship.
Alternative Hypothesis: Ha: Male factory
workers have a higher salary than female factory
workers.
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Null hypotheses (H0) Alternative hypotheses (Ha)

Definition A claim that there is no effect in the population. A claim that there is an effect in the
population.
Also known as H0 Ha
H1
Typical phrases used •No effect •An effect
•No difference •A difference
•No relationship •A relationship
•No change •A change
•Does not increase •Increases
•Does not decrease •Decreases

Symbols used Equality symbol (=, ≥, or ≤) Inequality symbol (≠, <, or >)

p≤α Rejected Supported

p>α Failed to reject Not supported
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Average Weighted Mean

Weighted mean is a type of average that helps in contributing equally to the final mean when
some data points are weighted more than the others. It is defined as the summation of the
product of weights and quantities, divided by the summation of weights.

Where:
Σ = summation (in other words…add them up!).
w = the weights.
x = the value.
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Weighted Mean Average Mean

The quantities are multiplied with the

The quantities are all added and divided by
weighted value, added, and then divided by
the number of observations.
the weight.

It is applied in the daily activities of

It is a mathematical equation.
finance.

It arrives at a solution to a problem. It represents a set of data.

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Percentage
The term "percentage" was adapted from the Latin word "per
centum", which means "by the hundred". Percentages are fractions
with 100 as the denominator. In other words, it is the relation between
part and whole where the value of "whole" is always taken as 100.
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The Likert scale is a standard

classification format for studies. The
respondents provide their opinion (data)
about the quality of a product/service
from high to low or better to worse
using two, four, five, or seven levels.
The Likert scale assumes that the
strength and intensity of the experience
are linear. Therefore, it goes from a
complete agreement to a complete
disagreement, assuming that attitudes
can be measured.
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Nominal level Examples of nominal scales

You can categorize your data by labelling them in mutually •City of birth
exclusive groups, but there is no order between the categories. •Gender
•Ethnicity
•Car brands
•Marital status
Ordinal level Examples of ordinal scales
You can categorize and rank your data in an order, but you •Top 5 Olympic medallists
cannot say anything about the intervals between the rankings. •Language ability (e.g., beginner,
Although you can rank the top 5 Olympic medallists, this scale intermediate, fluent)
does not tell you how close or far apart they are in number of •Likert-type questions (e.g., very
wins. dissatisfied to very satisfied)
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Interval level Examples of interval scales

You can categorize, rank, and infer equal intervals between •Test scores (e.g., IQ or exams)
neighboring data points, but there is no true zero point. •Personality inventories
The difference between any two adjacent temperatures is the •Temperature in Fahrenheit or
same: one degree. But zero degrees is defined differently Celsius
depending on the scale – it doesn’t mean an absolute absence of
temperature.
The same is true for test scores and personality inventories. A
zero on a test is arbitrary; it does not mean that the test-taker has
an absolute lack of the trait being measured.
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Ratio level Examples of ratio scales

You can categorize, rank, and infer equal intervals between •Height
neighboring data points, and there is a true zero point. •Age
A true zero means there is an absence of the variable of interest. •Weight
In ratio scales, zero does mean an absolute lack of the variable. •Temperature in Kelvin
For example, in the Kelvin temperature scale, there are no
negative degrees of temperature – zero means an absolute lack
of thermal energy.
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Other Statistical Tools

T-TEST

T-TEST (also known as t-statistic or sometimes t-distribution) - is

a popular statistical tool used to test differences between the
means (averages) of two groups, or the difference between one
group’s mean and a standard value. Running a t-test helps you to
understand whether the differences are statistically significant.

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T-TEST

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Other Statistical Tools

Pearson
Correlation
Coefficient (r)
Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r) - is the most
common way of measuring a linear correlation. It is a
number between –1 and 1 that measures the strength
and direction of the relationship between two variables.
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Pearson correlation
Correlation type Interpretation Example
coefficient (r)

Between 0 and 1 Positive correlation When one variable changes, the other Baby length & weight:
variable changes in the same direction. The longer the baby, the
heavier their weight.

0 No correlation There is no relationship between the Car price & width of

variables. windshield wipers:
The price of a car is not related
to the width of its windshield
wipers.

Between Negative correlation When one variable changes, the other Elevation & air pressure:
0 and –1 variable changes in the opposite direction. The higher the elevation, the
lower the air pressure.

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Pearson correlation coefficient (r) value Strength Direction

Greater than .5 Strong Positive
Between .3 and .5 Moderate Positive
Between 0 and .3 Weak Positive
0 None None
Between 0 and –.3 Weak Negative
Between –.3 and –.5 Moderate Negative
Less than –.5 Strong Negative
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