18CS71 – AI & ML

Module II

Dr. Karthick Raghunath. K. M

MVJCE

Semester – VII
Academic Year – 2021-2022 (ODD)

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 Learning objective and Prerequisite
 Explain Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
 Illustrate AI and ML algorithm and their use in appropriate
applications

TEXT BOOK
 Tom M Mitchell,“Machine Lerning”,1st Edition, McGraw Hill
Education, 2017.
 Elaine Rich, Kevin K and S B Nair, “Artificial Inteligence”, 3rd
Edition, McGraw Hill Education, 2017.
•
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 Learning objective and Prerequisite
Module-2:
• Knowledge representation issues, Predicate logic, Representation
knowledge using rules.
• Concept Learning: Concept learning task, Concept learning as search,
Find-S algorithm, Candidate Elimination Algorithm, Inductive bias of
Candidate Elimination Algorithm.

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 Knowledge representation
 Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial intelligence which
concerned with AI agents thinking and how thinking contributes to intelligent behavior of agents.

 It is responsible for representing information about the real world so that a computer can understand
and can utilize this knowledge to solve the complex real world problems such as diagnosis a medical
condition or communicating with humans in natural language.

What to Represent????
Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. E.g., Guitars contains strings,
trumpets are brass instruments.
Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.
Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about how to do things.
Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.
Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.
Knowledge-Base (KB): The Knowledge base is a group of the Sentences (Here,
sentences are used as a technical term and not identical with the
English language).
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 Knowledge representation
Relational Knowledge
 Table  Rows & Columns

Knowledge Representation as Logic

 Formal Logic, eg: Statement_1: (Ɐx) human(x)  mortal(x)
Statement_2: John  human
Statement_3: John is mortal????

Procedural Knowledge
 (Knowledge) Encoded in the form of procedures that performs specific task.
Eg: Interpreter of programming language (syntax & semantics)

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 Knowledge representation
Using Knowledge

Learning-- acquiring knowledge. This is more than simply adding new facts to a
knowledge base. New data may have to be classified prior to storage for easy retrieval,
etc.. Interaction and inference with existing facts to avoid redundancy and replication in
the knowledge and also so that facts can be updated.

Retrieval-- The representation scheme used can have a critical effect on the efficiency of
the method. Humans are very good at it. Many AI methods have tried to model human
(see lecture on distributed reasoning)

Reasoning-- Infer facts from existing data.

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 Knowledge representation
The following properties should be possessed by a knowledge representation system.
 Representational Adequacy-- the ability to represent the required knowledge;

 Inferential Adequacy- the ability to manipulate the knowledge represented to

produce new knowledge corresponding to that inferred from the original;

 Inferential Efficiency- the ability to direct the inferential mechanisms into the most
productive directions by storing appropriate guides;

 Acquisitional Efficiency- the ability to acquire new knowledge using automatic

methods wherever possible rather than reliance on human intervention.

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 Approaches to Knowledge Representation

 Simple relational knowledge

 Inheritable knowledge

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 Approaches to Knowledge Representation
Simple relational knowledge
The simplest way of storing facts is to use a relational method where each fact about
a set of objects is set out systematically in columns. This representation gives little
opportunity for inference, but it can be used as the knowledge basis for inference
engines.
 Simple way to store facts.
 Each fact about a set of objects is set out systematically in columns.
 Little opportunity for inference.
 Knowledge basis for inference engines.
Who is dead?
Who plays Jazz/Trumpet etc.?

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 Approaches to Knowledge Representation
Inheritable knowledge
Relational knowledge is made up of objects consisting of
 attributes
 corresponding associated values.

Property inheritance
 elements inherit values from being members of a class.
 data must be organized into a hierarchy of classes

 Boxed nodes -- objects and values of attributes of

objects.
 Values can be objects with attributes and so on.
 Arrows -- point from object to its value.
 This structure is known as a slot and filler structure,
semantic network or a collection of frames.
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Issues in Knowledge Representation

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Issues in Knowledge Representation

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Issues in Knowledge Representation

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Issues in Knowledge Representation

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Issues in Knowledge Representation

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Issues in Knowledge Representation

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Issues in Knowledge Representation

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Issues in Knowledge Representation

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Issues in Knowledge Representation

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Issues in Knowledge Representation

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 Frame Problems
In the confined world of a robot, surroundings are not static. Many varying forces or actions can
cause changes or modifications to it. The problem of forcing a robot to adapt to these changes is
the basis of the frame problem in artificial intelligence.

There are two basic types of change:

 Relevant Change: inspect the changes made by an action
 Irrelevant Change: do not inspect facts that are not related to the task at hand

Facts may be examined utilizing two levels:

 Semantic Level: This level interprets what kind of information is being examined.
Solutions should become obvious by the assumptions of how an object should behave.
There are believers in a purely semantic approach who believe that correct information can
be reached via meaning. However, this hypothesis has yet to be proven.

 Syntactic Level: This level simply decides in which format the information should be
inspected. That is, it forms solutions based on the structure and patterns of facts.
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 Predicate Logic
(Predicate Logic deals with predicates, which are propositions, consist of variables.)

A predicate is an expression of one or more variables determined on some specific domain. A

predicate with variables can be made a proposition by either authorizing a value to the variable or
by quantifying the variable.

Quantifier:
The variable of predicates is quantified by quantifiers. There are two types of quantifier in
predicate logic –
Existential Quantifier (∃) and
Universal Quantifier (∀)

Negation of Quantified Propositions

When we negate a quantified proposition, i.e., when a universally quantified proposition is
negated, we obtain an existentially quantified proposition and when an existentially quantified
proposition is negated, we obtain a universally quantified proposition.

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 Predicate Logic

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Representing Simple Facts in Logic

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Representing Simple Facts in Logic

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Representing Simple Facts in Logic

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Representing Simple Facts in Logic

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 Resolution
 Resolution is a theorem proving technique that proceeds by building refutation
proofs, i.e., proofs by contradictions. It was invented by a Mathematician John
Alan Robinson in the year 1965.
 Resolution is used, if there are various statements are given, and we need to prove
a conclusion of those statements.
 Unification is a key concept in proofs by resolutions.
 Resolution is a single inference rule which can efficiently operate on
the conjunctive normal form or clausal form.
 Clause: Disjunction of literals (an atomic sentence) is called a clause. It is also
known as a unit clause.
 Conjunctive Normal Form: A sentence represented as a conjunction of clauses is
said to be conjunctive normal form or CNF.

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 Resolution
 Resolution is one kind of proof technique that works this way -
(i) Select two clauses that contain conflicting terms
(ii)Combine those two clauses and
(iii)Cancel out the conflicting terms.

The operation used are ˄,˅ and ~ .

Two Normal Forms:
CNF (Conjunctive Normal Form) ˄ &
eg: (A ˅ B) ˄ (A ˅ ~B)
DNF (Disjunctive Normal Form) ˅
eg: (A ˄ B) ˅ (A ˄ ~B)

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