AC Circuit

SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGES AND

CURRENTS
BASIC CONCEPTS
• AC voltage are voltage that is changing in polarity
• Since they are changing in polarity there must be a frequency that is
the number of cycles per seconds.
• More than 90 % of electric energy in generated by AC machines.
• This AC voltage is converted to direct current(DC) for use in many
equipments.
Generation of alternating EMF
Emf – stands for electromotive force
Three ways how on how voltages are generated in a coil of wire
1. by changing the flux through the coil
2. by moving the coil through a magnetic field flux cutting results
3. by altering the direction of the flux with respect to the coil.
The first way is given by Faraday’s Law
That the induced voltage is
e = N (dФ/dt) x 10-8 volts

Where :
N – number of turns in a coil
dФ/dt – rate at which the flux, in maxwells, change through the coil
By the second or third methods,
The voltage developed is given by :

e = Blv x 1o-8 volts

Where :
B = flux density in lines per square inches
l = the length of the wire, that in moved relative to the flux
v – velocity of the wire in inches per second, with respect to the flux.
Generation of sine wave
e = Em sin wt
Or e = Em sin θ
Fundamental & harmonics
Fundamental – first generated frequency
Harmonics – higher frequencies that had been created out of the
fundamental frequencies
Frequency and electrical degrees
• an A-C generator is usually called an alternator having two poles will
develop one cycle of voltage variation for each revolution of the
rotating element of the machine.
• If the rotation occurs at the rate of one revolution per second,
(rps)then the voltage wave is said to have a frequency of one cycle
per second(cps)

P x rpm
F= cps
120
Note: commercial alternators for power service generate, for the most
part, @ 60, 25 & 50 cycles; odd frequencies such as 162/3 , 30, 40 & 80
cycles are some times found in isolated installations.
Standard
60 cycles---US
50 cycles --- Europe & Asia
25 cycles--- Rail ways
Sinusoidal alternating current
- When the voltage that varies sinusoidally is impressed across a
resistor 0f constant ohmic value, the current will be directly
proportional to the emf @ every instant of time .

- So it follows that :

- i = e/R = Em sin θ = Im sin θ

R
Figure
Vector and phasors
Average current
For a sinusoidal wave form, the average current is equal to zero

For a full wave pulsating sinusoidal wave form, the average current is

Im
Iave = ∫ sinθ dθ limit is from 0 - 360⁰
2∏

Iave = Im ∫ sinθ dθ limit is from 0 - 180⁰

∏
Effective current --- Irms
Rms – root mean square
- The energy of the current passing through a resistor is converted to
heat regardless of the direction.
- This is now the current that is effective in producing a heat in a
resistor during each alternation.
- The heating effect is proportional to the square of the current.
Thus:
Ieff2 = Im ∫ sin θ dθ to make the limit from o-180⁰
2
2
2𝚷
We need to multiply this by 2
FOR average & effective:

Im² Where: sin2θ = ½ (1-cos2θ)

Ieff =
2
∫ sin2θ dθ
∏

1
Eave = ∏ ∫ Em Sin Ѳ dѲ
1
ERMS = ∏ ∫ Em2 Sin2 Ѳ dѲ
Ieff = Irms = 0.707 Im
It follows that,
Eeff =Erms = 0.707 Em

Iave = 0.6366Im

It follows that,
Eave = 0.6366Em
Phase relationship
Summation of in phase sinusoidal waves:

Em = Em1 + Em2 + Em3 + …+ Emn

Im = Im1 + Im2 + Im3 + …+ Imn
0r simply
E = E1 + E2 + E3 + …+ En
I = I1 + I2 + I3 + …+ In

Note : this is true if they have the same frequency

Summation of out of phase sinusoidal waves

When two or more sinusoidal current or voltage are out

of phase, they can be added to yield a sine wave of the
same frequency.
To determine the magnitude of the effective value, the
resultant of two same frequency sinusoidal wave, the
fol0wing equation may be used.
R = √(A + Bcosθ)2 + (Bsinθ)2
Where A& B = Rms values of the component waves
θ = angular displacement between A & B
R = rms Value of the resultant Wave
Figure
Series & parallel inductance
Inductor – made out of magnetic wire in the form of a coil
- The voltage across the inductor is directly proportional
to the rate of change of current with respect to time.
VL = L di/dt ; L – inductance in Henry
VL – voltage across the inductance
di/dt – the change of current with respect to time
Connections
1. Series
2. Parallel
3. Series - parallel
Inductive reactance (XL ---Ω)
XL = 2πFL ---- Ω
Where:
XL ---- the inductive reactance in ohms
2π --- indicates one complete revolution
F --- the frequency in Hertz
L --- the inductance in Henry
Capacitance --- C ---- Farads
The voltage across the capacitor is directly proportional to the stored
charge idt

1
Vc = ∫ idt
c

Where :
Vc --- the voltage across the capacitor
C --- the capacitance in Farads
i --- the current in Amperes
dt --- the change in time in seconds
Connections
• Series
• Parallel
• Series – parallel
Capacitive reactance (XC --- Ω)

XC = 1
2πFC

Where;
Xc --- the capacitive reactance in ohms
2 π --- indicate one complete revolution
F --- the frequency in Hertz
C --- the capacitance in Farads
Note:
• Purely resistive circuit, the current is in phase with the voltage.
• Purely capacitive circuit, the current leads the voltage by 90 degrees.
• Purely inductive circuit, the current lags the voltage by 90 degrees.
Series inductance – capacitance (L – c ) circuit

Note:
1. The current is in phase with the voltage in a resistance circuit
2. The current lags behind the voltage by 90 deg. in an inductance
circuit.
3. The current leads the voltage by 90 deg. In a capacitance circuit.
For a pure inductance and capacitance in series, it is going to behave
like an inductance or capacitance depending on which reactance
has a higher value.
Series resistance inductance(R-L)circuit

EL = I XL
ER E = √ ER2 +EL2

EL E θ

ER = I R

E = I Z ; Z = √R2 + XL2

Cos θ = IR/IZ = R/Z = I2R/I2Z = P/I(Z)(I) = P/EI

Thus: P = EI cosθ watts; Pf = cos θ lagging

Series resistance-capacitance(R – C ) circuit

ER Ec
ER=IR
θ

E
Ec = IXc

E = I Z ; Z = √R2 + XC2

P = EI cosθ watts ; Pf = cos θ leading

Impedance of a Series resistance, capacitive &
inductive reactance (Z)

Z = R +j( XL – XC)

Z
XL
Z Ѳ R
X
Ѳ = Tan –1
R
XC
For a series RLC, it will result to either RL or RC depending on which
has the higher value between the
inductive and capacitive reactance.
Impedance of a parallel ckt.
RL
= + Z = R jXL
R + jXL

RC
= +

Z =
R (-jXc)
R - jXc
LC

Z = =
-jXC jXL
JXL – JXC
XC XL
JXL – JXC

; J x J = - ; 0r from 90⁰ + - 90⁰ = 0⁰

Impedance of a parallel resistive, capacitive &
inductive reactance (Z)

Z
XL
Z L C Ѳ
R R
X
Ѳ = Tan –1
R
XC
Series equivalent circuit

Z = 1/Y

Y= G +j( BC – BL)
G Z
BC

Y Ѳ R
BL
B
Ѳ = Tan –1
G
Bc BL
Option for parallel RLC

Z= R (jXL)(-jXC)
Rj(XL) + jXL(-jXC) + R(-jXC)

R (XL)(XC)
Z= XL(XC) + j(RXL - RXC)
Impedance coil resistance
Coil actually possesses properties of inductance and resistance that are
independent. To determine the resistance of the coil, and inductance
of such a coil it is some times desirable to connect a fixed resistance
in series with the unit, then measure the voltage Ez, ER, E & the
current then proceed to make calculation.
Response of basic R, L, & C elements to A sinusoidal
voltage or current
Resistor:
Ohms law

I= = E Em sin wt
R R

Where : Note : for a purely resistive

element, the voltage and the
Em current, through the element are
Im = R in phase with their peak values
related by ohms law
Inductor
Recall
di Or iL = ∫ EL dt
VL = L dt

i
L

VL = Em sin (wt +90) since the voltage is leading the current

Capacitor
Recall

iC = C dVc
dt

Or EC = ∫ iC dt

Ec = Em sin (wt - 90) since the voltage is lagging the current

For R,L,C
P ave = ErmsIrms cosθ
Cos θ is the power factor
θ is the phase shift B/N E & I

Purely resistive
Pave = ErmsIrms

Purely inductive
Instantaneous power
P = Em sinwt(- Im cos t)
But sinwt(cos wt) = (sin2wt)/2
P = - EmIm/2(sin2wt) = -(Em/√2)(Im/√2)sin2wt = - EIsin2wt
Pave = 0
Purely capacitive
Instantaneous power
P = Em sinwt(Im cos wt)
But sin wt(cos wt) = (sin2wt)/2
P = EmIm/2(sin2wt) = (Em/√2)(Im/√2)sin2wt = EIsin2wt
Pave = 0
Energy stored in an inductive & capacitive circuit(W)

Inductive:
W = EI/w = (wLI)I/w = LI2 joule

Capacitive :
W = EI/w = E(wCE)/w = CE2 joules

Where:
W – energy stored in Joules
E – voltage in Volts
I – current in Amperes
L – inductance in Henry
C – capacitance in Farads
Volt – ampere & reactive volt – ampere

Note :
P is the power dissipate on the resistance ---watts
VA – resultant power in kilo volt – ampere (KVA)
RVA – reactive power in reactive volts – ampere (RKVA)
RF – reactive factor = EI sinθ/EI = sin θ
Since ; sin2θ + cos2θ = 1 ;
sin θ = √1 – cos2θ = √1 – (Pf)2
P is the true power = I2R = E2/R = EIcosθ
VA = EI
RVA = EIsinθ
Phasor diagram
Power :
E(Icosθ) Watts

E(Isinθ) Reactive
Volt - ampere
EI Volt - ampere
Parallel & series Parallel
Admittance & susceptance
Admittance (Y)= I/Z
Susceptance (B) = 1/X
Yt = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + … + Yn

Y1 = 1/Z1 Y1 = 1/Z2 Y1 = 1/Z3 Y1 = 1/Zn

Or 1/Zt = 1/Z1 + 1/Z2 + 1/Z3 + … + 1/Zn

For 2 impedance in parallel;
Zt = Z1Z2/(Z1 + Z2)
For 3 impedance in parallel;
Zt = Z1Z2Z3/(Z1Z2+Z2Z3+Z3Z1)
Admittance, Conductance, & Susceptance in parallel circuits Problems.

Y – admittance = 1/Z Ʊ – mho or Siemens

G – conductance = 1/R
RL Rc
B – susceptance = 1/X
XL Xc