UNIT-1

INTERNET

WHAT IS INTERNET

The internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible series of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet protocol(IP). It is a NETWORK OF NETWORKS that consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic,business,and government networks, which together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer, and the interlinked web pages and other resources of the world wide web(WWW).

HISTORY OF INTERNET

In 1970s there was a project called ARPANET(Advanced Research Projects Agency network) by US department of defense called ARPA (Advanced Research Project Agency). This project was to design a network service for computer communications on over a wide area. ARPAs task was to develop a geographically dispersed, reliable communication network for military use that would not be disrupted in case of Partial distribution from the nuclear attack. They accomplished this by splitting the data being transmitted into the small packets, which could take different routes to their destination.

Other private networks came up soon following the design of ARPANET such as BITNET, CSNET etc. In 1986, NSF(National Science Foundation) created NSFNET, A network with five super computers to establish effective communication amongst universities. In 1990, the ARPANET was dismantled and other networks came to substitute for it.

ARCHITECTURE OF INTERNET

HOW DOES INTERNET WORK?

Client calls his ISP over a dial up telephone line. The modem is a card within the PC that converts the digital signals the computer produces to analog signals that can pass unhindered over the telephone system. These signals are transferred to the ISPs POP(point of presence), where they are removed from the telephone system and injected into the ISPs regional network. From this point the system is fully digital and packet switched. The ISPs regional network consists of interconnected routers in the various cities. If the packet is destined for a host served directly by the ISP, the packet is delivered to the host. Otherwise, it is handed over to the backbone operator. If a packet given to the backbone is destined for an ISP or company served by the backbone, it is sent to the closest router and handed off there. How ever many backbones of varying sizes, exist in this world, so a packet may have to go to a competing back bone. To allow packets to hop between back bones, all major backbones are connected at the NAP(NETWORK ACCESS POINT).

NAP is a room full of routers, at least one per back bone. A LAN in the room connects all the routers, at least one per back bone. A LAN in the room connects all the routers, so packets can be forwarded from any backbone to any other back bone. In addition to being interconnected at NAPs, the larger backbones have numerous direct connections between their routers, a technique known as private peering.

DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical distributed naming system for computers, services, or any resource connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each of the participating entities. Most importantly, it translates domain names meaningful to humans into the numerical identifiers associated with networking equipment for the purpose of locating and addressing these devices worldwide. An often-used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is that it serves as the phone book for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses.

The Domain Name System makes it possible to assign domain names to groups of Internet resources and users in a meaningful way, independent of each entity's physical location. Because of this, World Wide Web (WWW) hyperlinks and Internet contact information can remain consistent and constant even if the current Internet routing arrangements change or the participant uses a mobile device. Internet domain names are easier to remember than IP addresses. Users take advantage of this when they recite meaningful Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) and e-mail addresses without having to know how the computer actually locates them.

The Domain Name System distributes the responsibility of assigning domain names and mapping those names to IP addresses by designating authoritative name servers for each domain. Authoritative name servers are assigned to be responsible for their particular domains, and in turn can assign other authoritative name servers for their sub-domains. This mechanism has made the DNS distributed and fault tolerant and has helped avoid the need for a single central register to be continually consulted and updated. In general, the Domain Name System also stores other types of information, such as the list of mail servers that accept email for a given Internet domain. By providing a worldwide, distributed keyword-based redirection service, the Domain Name System is an essential component of the functionality of the Internet.

Domain name syntax

A domain name consists of one or more parts, technically called labels, that are conventionally concatenated, and delimited by dots, such as example.com. The right-most label conveys the top-level domain; for example, the domain name www.example.com belongs to the top-level domain com. The hierarchy of domains descends from right to left; each label to the left specifies a subdivision, or subdomain of the domain to the right. For example: the label example specifies a subdomain of the com domain, and www is a sub domain of example.com.

WEB ADDRESS

This is a unique address that identifies a website.eg. Google.com URL: Uniform Resource Locator or URLs are the addresses used to locate the files. The information contained in a URL gives us the ability to hop from one web page to another with just a click of your mouse. When we type a URL into our browser or click on a hypertext link, our browser sends a request to a remote computer, called a web server, to download one or more files. Every URL is unique, identifying one specific file. EXAMPLE: http://www.learnthenet.com

INFORMATION PROVIDED BY DIFFERENT PARTS OF URL

The different parts of URL provide different information as follows: 1. The first part of the URL(before the two slashes)tells us the type of resource or method of access at that address For example: http:- a hypertext document or directory ftp:- a file available for downloading or a directory of these files. 2. The second part is typically the address of the computer where the data or the service is located. 3.The additional parts may specify the name of the file, the port to connect to, or the text to search for in a database. 4. The last part of the URL specifies the name of the domain to which the address belongs.(SEE DNS)

WORLD WIDE WEB

World wide web is a system of interlinked hyper text documents accessed via the internet. World wide web was created in 1989 by sir Tim Berners-Lee, working at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland.

How does www work?

Viewing a web page on the world wide web normally begins either by typing the URL of the page into the browser, or by following a hyperlink to that page or resource. The web browser then initiates a series of communication messages, behind the scenes, in order to fetch and display it. First the server name portion of the URL is resolved into an IP address using the global, distributed internet database known as the domain name system, or DNS. The browser then requests the resources by sending an HTTP request to the web server at that particular address. In the case of a typical web page, the HTML text of the page is requested first and parsed immediately by the web browser, which will make additional requests for images and any other files that form a part of the page.

CONTINUED.

Having received the required files from the web server, the browser then renders the page onto the screen as specified by its HTML, CSS and other web languages. Most web pages will themselves contain hyperlinks to other related pages and perhaps to download, source documents, definitions and other web resources. Such a collection of the information and making it available on the internet, Tim Burner's Lee termed it as World Wide Web and was dubbed as web in 1990.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WWW AND INTERNET

DO YOURSELF

CONNECTING TO INTERNET
There are three ways to connect to internet: 1. Through Telephone 2. Cable connection 3. Satellite connection

THROUGH TELEPHONE

An internet telephone system uses a Public Switched Telephone Network(PSTN). At least two telephone stations are part of the system wherein one of the at least two telephone stations is a DSL(Digital Subscriber Line) telephone station which is coupled to the PSTN. The DSL telephone station has a Plain Old telephone Set(POTS)splitter coupled to the PSTN for directing low frequency signals to a first line and DSL signals to a second line. A DSL line interface is coupled to the POTS splitter for driving and terminating the second line. A DSL transmitter and DSL Receiver is coupled to the DSL line interface. A digital signal processor (DSP) is coupled to the DSL transmitter and DSL receiver.

A telephone interface is coupled to the first line. An audio transceiver device is coupled to the telephone interface. A CODEC(Coder Decoder) circuit is also coupled to the telephone interface. A ring and hook detect/control circuitry is coupled to the DSP.

CABLE CONNECTION

Cable connections are considered one of the best types of internet connection available to the home user, they offer very fast and reliable connections with a fixed monthly charge. Cable companies usually offer different packages to suit different internet subscribers, your choice of package, as with all internet connections will depend on how you intend to use the internet. The different packages will offer different speed specifications and bandwidth limits. Because a cable connection uses a totally separate medium to transfer data it doesn't affect your ability to make/receive phone calls.

CABLE CONNECTION PROS

Speed is very good. Cable connections transfer data digitally, eliminating any digital/analogue conversion overhead. Cable connections are always on, eliminating long waits to make a connection.

Cable connection cons

Cable connections are not available in every area. Because cable connections are always on we need a firewall to protect our PC.

SATELLITE CONNECTION
A satellite internet connection is an arrangement in which the upstream(outgoing) and the downstream(incoming) data are sent from, and arrive at, a computer through satellite. Each subscribers hardware includes a satellite dish antenna and a transceiver(transmitter/receiver) that operates in the microwave portion of the radio spectrum. In a two-way satellite internet connection, the upstream data is usually sent at a slower speed than the downstream data arrives. Thus the connection is asymmetric. A dish antenna measuring about two feet high by three feet wide by three feet deep, transmits and receives signals.

Satellite Connection Pros

Satellite internet systems are excellent ,although rather pricey , option for the people in the rural areas where digital subscriber line (DSL)and cable modem connections are not available. A satellite installation can be used even where the most basic utilities are lacking, if there is a generator or battery power supply that can produce enough electricity to run a desktop computer system.

ISP

An Internet service provider (abbr. ISP, also called Internet access provider or IAP) is a business or organization that provides consumers or businesses access to the Internet and related services. In the past, most ISPs were run by the phone companies. Now, ISPs can be started by just about any individual or group with sufficient money and expertise. In addition to Internet access via various technologies such as dial-up and DSL, they may provide a combination of services including Internet transit, domain name registration and hosting, web hosting, and collocation.

CHOOSING AN ISP
There are basically two types: 1. DIAL UP CONNECTION:A dial-up connection that uses your current telephone line to connect to the Internet has many drawbacks. It is the slowest type of service. It ties up your telephone line unless you install an extra line or a device to notify you when a call comes in while you are online. It can take several minutes to make a connection. The only advantage of dial-up service is the cost. It is the cheapest way to get on the Internet. So dial-up service may be an option if cost is an important factor or if you only plan to use the Internet on an occasional basis.

2.BroadBand:For those of you who want to go online regularly and don't mind spending more, broadband Internet access is the way to go. It is fast, doesn't tie up your telephone line, and is "always on" so you don't have to wait for the telephone to dial and connect. When your computer is on, the Internet is instantly available to you. There are three popular types of broadband connections: DSL, cable, and satellite.

An Internet Service Provider can be a company like EarthLink or America Online. These are dedicated ISPs that are only in the Internet business. It can also be a telephone company like Sprint, or a cable company like Time Warner. Dedicated ISPs and telephone companies can provide both dial-up and broadband service while cable providers generally only provide broadband cable connections. First check with your own cable service provider and telephone company. Call or visit their Web sites to compare prices and service. Then check out any dedicated Internet Service Providers. You can often locate local service providers through ads in your local newspaper. You can find national service providers by searching the Internet and/or computer-related magazines and material. While price is important, don't choose an ISP based solely on the amount that it charges or you may be disappointed when you cannot get online or get help. In choosing an ISP you should not underestimate the importance of the quality of service and the availability of good support. Often the only way to evaluate these services is to get the opinion of and learn from the experiences of others.

INTERNET SERVICES
EMAIL: E-mail, short for electronic mail and often abbreviated to email, email or simply mail, is a store and forward method of composing, sending and storing messages over electronic communication systems. The term "e-mail" (as a noun or verb) applies both to the Internet e-mail system based on the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and to intranet systems allowing users within one organization to e-mail each other. Intranets may use the Internet protocols for internal e-mail service supporting workgroup collaboration. E-mail is often used to deliver bulk unsolicited messages, or "spam", but filter programs exist which can automatically delete some or most of these, depending on the situation. Email is an asynchronous form of communication, meaning that the recipient of the message doesnt have to be available at the precise moment the sender sends the message. Messaging is very similar to the postal system.

EMAIL ADDRESS

An email address identifies an email box to which email messages are delivered. An example format of an email address is [email protected] which is read as lewis at example dot net. There are so many free email services like yahoo.com, gmail.com, rediff.com that we can have access.

STRUCTURE OF E-MAIL MESSAGE

Email message consists of two main parts: 1.Header: The header includes the name and address of the sender, the recipient and others to whom a copy of the message has to be sent along with the date along with the date and subject of the message. When a user sends a message, the message is copied to the recipients machine and stored in the mail box. 2. Body: The body of the message consists of the actual message. We can open our mail box anywhere in the world and any time.

How does E-mail reaches its destination

Just as a letter goes to different postal offices along its way, email passes from one computer, known as a mail server, to another as it travels on the internet. Once it reaches the destination mail server it is stored in the mail box until the recipient receives it. All is done in few seconds. Lengthy mails are broken into small chunks of data called packets, which travel independently weaving their way along with, innumerable other packets traveling to different destinations. On the way packets are passed from one server to the next until they reach their final destinations. Any given messages packets and attached files may travel by several different routes, so that components often arrive out of order and at different times. Once all the packets have arrived, they are recombined into their original form.

SENDING AND RECEIVING SECURE EMAIL

Email encryption

Email encryption allows you to send a email to a recipient with the message content scrambled. Only the intended recipient can decrypt the message.
The recipient must have a digital certificate. . Your email program will lookup the recipient's certificate from the CUHK LDAP server, and use the recipient's public key, which is embedded in the certificate, to encrypt the email. The recipient's email program will use the recipient's private key to decrypt the email.

Digital signature on email

Digital signature on email allows the recipient to verify that the message came from you. No one except you can generate a digital signature with your identity. Your email program will use your private key to generate a digital signature. Your digital certificate will (optionally) be sent together with the email and the signature.
If your certificate is not sent with the email, the recipient's email program will lookup your certificate from the CUHK LDAP server. The email program will use your public key, which is embedded in the certificate, to verify your signature. Any change to the original email message will make the signature verification fail. A secure email can be either encrypted, or signed, or both.

MAIL USER AGENT

A mail user agent (MUA) is an email program; software designed to collect and send electronic mail. It is also referred to as an email program or email client. The term MAIL USER AGENT is less familiar to the average person, but is used in email headers. The headers of the email supply information to the mail servers or computers that handle transferring messages across networks like the internet.

MAIL TRANSFER AGENT

A mail transfer agent is a computer program or software agent that transfers e mail messages from one computer to another. An MTA receives mail from another MTA or from MUA. MTA works behind the scene while the user interacts with MUA.

CARBON COPY OF EMAIL AND BLIND CARBON COPY OF EMAIL

In e-mail, the abbreviation CC indicates secondary recipients of a message: those who are to receive a copy of a message directed to another. The list of Cced recipients is visible to all other recipients of the message. BCC field is available for the hidden notification; recipients listed in the BCC field receive a copy of the message but are not shown on any other recipients copy.

ESSENTIAL ETIQUETTS OF EMAILS

Think of an Appropriate Subject Select a title for your email that reflects its content. If you want to convey important information, make your subject as detailed and specific as possible. Similarly, take care not to overuse the priority tags in your email client. Don't send every message as high priority if they really aren't that important to your recipient. Never leave your subject line empty. It's the first thing your recipient sees even before he or she reads the body of your message. If you leave it blank, it will appear as "(none)" or "(no subject)" in some email programs. This leaves a poor impression.

Address Recipients Properly when you're writing email messages to people for the first time, it's best to address them by their names instead of using a generic "Dear Sir/Madam. If you're sending a message to people you don't know, make an effort to look for your recipients' full names in the "Contact" or "About" sections of their Web sites. Spell their names correctly. Don't be too casual during the first contact. When you're sending a message to a group of people, particularly if they don't know each other, enter their addresses in the " BCC" line to protect everyone's privacy. You can enter your own address in the "To" line.

Select an Appropriate Tone The tone of voice you use in your e-mail depends on the level of formality you deem necessary. It's advisable to be a little more formal during the first contact. You can adopt a more casual tone in subsequent messages. Don't fill your messages with acronyms like " OTOH," (on the other hand) " ROTFL," (rolling on the floor laughing) and " FWIW" (for what it's worth). Pick your fonts and colors carefully. Messages with overly large fonts can be annoying. Making every word in your message a different color is a bad idea. Also avoid the use of repeated exclamation marks! Nobody is that excited!! Don't use all-caps in your message text unless you really mean it. When you use them, it comes across as if you were screaming. SO DON'T DO IT!

Avoid Irony and Sarcasm Because of the impersonal nature of email, it's hard to convey your true emotions. It's equally hard for the person on the receiving end to determine if you're trying to be funny or insulting. In general, humor does not work well with email. Don't be wry or ironic, because the other person could think you're being rude. Avoid humor especially when it could be interpreted as offensive. Reread your message carefully from your recipient's point of view to detect possible misunderstandings before they occur.

Edit Your Message Typos, missing punctuation, and grammar slips can be a big turn-off. Use your spell-checker to spot mistakes. Then read through your entire message once more, and look out for places where you could be misunderstood. If you don't address the message until you're ready to send it, you can avoid accidentally mailing it before you're ready. Keep Messages Pithy Respect the fact that your recipients are busy people with inboxes that may well be bursting with unread mail. Don't assume that they will piously plough through your wordy email. Write your email so as to allow the reader to get the gist of your message by skimming through the text. When editing your email, cut out unnecessary words. Keep sentences short and to the point. If you're forwarding a message, especially one with a long string of correspondence, or responding to a string of messages, delete unnecessary information like repeated signature lines, long strings of angle brackets, i.e. "<<<<," and blank spaces. Make sure it's still clear who wrote what in the conversation.

Attachments Don't send attachments to people you don't know without asking first. Many people don't like to receive them, can't receive them, or won't be able to read your particular file format. In Summary Never underestimate the power of a well-crafted email. It can be an effective tool for communication. Put as much thought into writing an email message as you would when writing a letter. Write it with your purpose and audience in mind, and always remember the essentials of email etiquette.

VOICE CONFERENCING

Voice conferencing is a telephone based conferencing service that enables meetings to be held over the phone with people in various locations. Conference call facilities can host up to 20 or more people any time, day or night, weekday or weekend. The voice conferencing service becomes a virtual meeting room which is available whenever it is required. You can now share and discuss information in exactly the same way as you would in a real meeting. No special equipment is needed to enjoy this facility - just a telephone. Each person that wishes to take part in the conference is issued with a special security code that is input before the conference call begins. This facility can bring you together with clients and business partners anywhere in the world. Using this service can help run your business more efficiently and productively. Time that you would have spent on the road traveling to meetings is saved and crucial decisions can be made quickly with all involved people being able to participate. It is an ideal way to manage your business and provide reports to partners. There is no pre booking with this service so you have access to it at any time. You can pick a package that best suits your business needs, or can simply pay-as-you-go. Voice conferencing offers a private and secure way of holding meetings that all involved parties can benefit from.

Why is audio conferencing valuable?

An audio conferencing facility with integrated web conferencing option is an ideal facility for all business that have clients scattered around the country, or the world. Audio conferencing is available at all times and for anyone wishing to use the facility. A user code is input into the system and this gives global access all day, every day. These conferencing services are all automated and there is no need to book in advance to hold a meeting or talk to partners. Conference services are ideal for companies that need to control their calls. They can define their user groups who wish to book dial in facilities on a demand basis only. Even though this is a fully automated service, there is still a requirement to reserve it the first time via e-mail or fax.

Phone conferencing, video conferencing and web conferencing

Companies use a number of ways to communicate, whether across their own sites, with their suppliers or with customers. Phone conferencing is a wellestablished way of saving time and money on meetings, and companies have also been using video conferencing for some time to facilitate meetings. Web conferencing is fairly new, but is set to become very popular in boardrooms across the globe so how do they differ?

Phone conferencing

Phone conferencing involves a system where a number of people can have a phone conversation at the same time effectively holding a meeting over the phone. Participants can be in different offices and different countries: they each dial the dedicated number to access the meeting. Many companies have phone conferencing systems installed within the company; others use Pay As You Go services, where participants dial into a remote location and are just charged for the call time they use. Conference call systems has been around for may years, and are now taking advantage of new technology to improve call quality and reduce cost.

Video conferencing

Video conferencing is two-way audio and visual conferencing. Like phone conferencing, participants can be in different locations and, with the use of a small camera, microphone and monitor, they can see and hear the other people in the meeting. The quality of the video output isnt as good as regular television transmission but network developments have enabled the visual quality to be very high. The benefit of video conferencing is that you can use it for uses other than just meetings; for example, to give a staff presentation, or to talk to shareholders from a distance.

Web conferencing

Web conferencing gives you the benefits of phone conferencing, but adds on the ability to use the internet to enhance your conference with illustrations, text, web tours, highlights and much more. Web conferencing is currently more expensive than phone or video conferencing

VIDEO CONFERENCING

Video conferencing in its simplest form is the use of visual and audio technology to enable people in different locations to communicate, as if they were in the same room, through the use of cameras, monitors or screens. Participants in such a meeting can also share documents, spreadsheets and images, depending upon the quality of the network links and the equipment used. Types of video conferencing There are three main types of system; Desktop, Settop, and integrated.

Desktop Video Conferencing

This form of video conferencing has recently enjoyed rapid growth and is designed for use by individuals, as a small screen on the desk is used. It is now possible to display images for up to eight other conference participants, using high quality video, excellent voice communication and integrated document and application sharing. This form of video conferencing is also available on laptops, which provide a mobile communication platform.

Set-top Video Conferencing

These are compact video conferencing units. They consist of a camera, which can pan, tilt and zoom, a microphone and are designed to sit on top of a monitor. For added flexible use in different locations within a building, they can also be used on a purpose built roll about unit. These systems are usually used for small groups of people. They provide a high quality visual and audio meeting facility, which can be enhanced with the use of additional presentation equipment.

Integrated Video Conferencing

These are video conferencing systems that are generally built into larger rooms, such as board rooms and conference rooms. They are a highly professional communication facility and can provide a variety of presentation displays, depending upon the equipment used. Typically, they are used for groups of ten or more people. All of these different types of video conferencing units and systems can link to each other, to provide a variety of mediums for people to communicate, either within an organization or externally.

TECHNOLOGY USED IN VIDEO CONFERENCING

The core technology used in a videoconferencing system is digital compression of audio and video streams in real time. The hardware or software that performs compression is called a codec (coder/decoder). Compression rates of up to 1:500 can be achieved. The resulting digital stream of 1s and 0s is subdivided into labeled packets, which are then transmitted through a digital network of some kind.

components required for a videoconferencing system include: Video input : video camera or webcam Video output: computer monitor , television or projector Audio input: microphones, CD/DVD player, cassette player, or any other source of PreAmp audio outlet. Audio output: usually loudspeakers associated with the display device or telephone Data transfer: analog or digital telephone network, LAN or Internet Computer: a data processing unit that ties together the other components, does the compressing and decompressing, and initiates and maintains the data linkage via the network

USES OF INTERNET
1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

To find general information about a subject To access information not easily available elsewhere To correspond with faraway friends To meet people To discuss their interests with like-minded people To learn To find software

Why do people put things on the Web?

1. 2.

3.
4.

To advertise a product To sell a product To make money To share their knowledge with the world

SHORT NOTES
1.

2.

SIMPLE MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL(SMTP):Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an Internet standard for electronic mail (e-mail) transmission across Internet Protocol (IP) networks. SIMPLE NETWORK MANAGEMENT PROTOCOL(SNMP):Simple Network Management
Protocol (SNMP) is an "Internet-standard protocol for managing devices on IP networks. Devices that typically support SNMP include routers, switches, servers, workstations, printers, modem racks, and more.[1] It is used mostly in network management systems to monitor network-attached devices for conditions that warrant administrative attention.

3. DHCP(DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROT OCOL) :In Computer networking, the DYNAMIC HOST COFIGURATION PROTOCOL is a network application protocol used by devices to obtain configuration information for operation in an internet protocol network. This protocol reduces system administration workload, allowing networks to add devices with little or no intervention.

4. FTP:File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to transfer files from one host to another over a TCP-based network, such as the Internet. FTP is built on a client-server architecture and utilizes separate control and data connections between the client and server. 5. TELNET: Telnet is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to provide a bidirectional interactive text-oriented communications facility using a virtual terminal connection.

6.POINT TO POINT PROTOCOL: In networking, the Point-to-Point Protocol, or PPP, is a data link protocol commonly used in establishing a direct connection between two networking nodes. It can provide connection authentication, transmission encryption privacy, and compression. 7.POP(POST OFFICE PROTOCOL): In computing, the Post Office Protocol (POP) is an applicationlayer Internet standard protocol used by local e-mail clients to retrieve e-mail from a remote server over a TCP/IP connection.

8. IMAP(INTERNET MESSAGE ACCESS PROTOCOL ): It is an application layer protocol that allows an email client to access email on a remote mail server. IMAP supports both online and offline modes of operation. 9.HTTP(HYPER TEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL):The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a networking protocol for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems. HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web. Its use for retrieving inter-linked resources led to the establishment of the world wide web. The HTTP provides a standard for web

10. ARP(ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL): the address resolution protocol is the method for finding a hosts link layer address when only its internet layer or some other network layer address is known. 11.RARP(REVERSE ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL) It is a link layer networking protocol used by a host computer to obtain its internet protocol address when it has available its link layer address.
12. BOOTP(BOOTSTRAP PROTOCOL): In computer networking, the Bootstrap Protocol, or BOOTP, is a network protocol used by a network client to obtain an IP address from a configuration server. BOOTP is usually used during the bootstrap process when a computer is starting up. A BOOTP configuration server assigns an IP address to each client from a pool of addresses

ISDN: Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communications standards for simultaneous digitaltransmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network. Prior to ISDN, the telephone system was viewed as a way to transport voice, with some special services available for data. The key feature of ISDN is that it integrates speech and data on the same lines, adding features that were not available in the classic telephone system. ISDN is a circuitswitchedtelephonenetwork system, which also provides access to packet switched networks, designed to allow digital transmission of voice and data over ordinary telephone copper wires, resulting in potentially better voice quality than an analog phone can provide.

CSMA/CD

Short for Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection, a set of rules determining how network devices respond when two devices attempt to use a data channel simultaneously (called a collision). Standard Ethernet networks use CSMA/CD to physically monitor the traffic on the line at participating stations. If no transmission is taking place at the time, the particular station can transmit. If two stations attempt to transmit simultaneously, this causes a collision, which is detected by all participating stations. After a random time interval, the stations that collided attempt to transmit again. If another collision occurs, the time intervals from which the random waiting time is selected are increased step by step. This is known as exponential back off.