PHYSICS FOR

ENGINEERS
REFERENCE: PHYSICS ( RESNICK, HOLIDAY, KRANE) AND
REVIEWER AND TEXT ( RICARDO ASIN)
COURSE OUTLINE
 Measurements
 Motion in one dimension
 Force and Newtons Law
 Motion in two or three Dimensions
 Applications of Newtons Laws
 Momentum
 System of Particles
 Rotational Kinematics
 Rotational Dynamics
 Angular Momentum
 Work and Kinetic Energy
 Potential energy
 Conservation of Energy
 Gravitation
 Fluid statics
 Fluid Dynamics
 Temperature
MEASUREMENTS
 Despite the mathematical beauty of some of its most complex and abstract
theories, physics is above all an experimental science. It is therefore critical that
those make precise measurements be able to agree on standards on which to
express the results of those measurements. So that they can be communicated
from one laboratory to another and verified.
 In this topic we understand the basic units of physical quantities and the standards
that have been accepted for their measurements. We consider the proper way to
express the result of calculations and measurements, including the appropriate
dimensions and number of significant figures. We discuss and illustrate the
importance of paying attention to the dimensions of the quantities that appear in
our equations.
Physical Quantities, Standards and Units
 The laws of physics are expressed in terms of many different quantities: mass,
length, time, force, speed, density, resistance, temperature, luminous intensity,
magnetic field strength, and many more. Each of these terms has the precise
meaning, and they form part of the common language that physicist and scientist
used to communicate with each other. When a physicist uses a term such as “
kinetic energy”, all other physicist will immediately understand what is meant.
Each of these terms also represents a quantity that can be measure in the
laboratory, and just us there must be agreement on the meaning of these terms,
there must be also agreement about the unit used to express their values.
THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
 At its various meetings, the General conference of weights and measures selected
as base units the seven quantities displayed in Table 1-1. This is the basis of the
International System of Units, (SI). “SI” is the modern form of what is known
generally as the metric system.
 TABLE 1-1 SI BASE UNITS
SI UNITS
Quantity
Name Symbols
Time second s
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Amount of Substance mole mol
Thermodynamic Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd
 Throughout the topic we give many examples of SI derived units, such as speed,
force, electric resistance and many more.
Example: The SI unit of force is called newton ( abbreviation N), is defined
in terms of SI base units as
1 N = 1 kg.m/s2
Sample Problem: Any physical quantity can be multiply by 1 without changing its
value. For example, 1 min = 60 seconds, so 1 = 60 s/1 m, 1ft. = 12 in., so 1 = 12 in/ 1
ft. A.) the speed in meters per second is equivalent to 55 miles per hour and (b) the
volume in cubic centimeters of tank that holds 16 gallons of gasoline.
Solution: a. 1 mile = 1,609 meters, and 1h = 3,600 seconds
speed = 55 x x = 25 m/s
b. one fluid gallon is 231 cubic inches, and 1 inch = 2.54 cm.
volume = 16 gal x x ()3 = 6.1 x 104 cm3
 Table 1 – 2. SI Prefixes

Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol

1024 yotta Y 10-1 deci d
1021 zetta Z 10-2 centi c
1018 exa E 10-3 milli m
1015 peta P 10-6 micro μ
1012 tera T 10-9 nano n
109 giga G 10-12 pico p
106 mega M 10-15 Femto f
103 kilo k 10-18 atto a
102 hecto h 10-21 zepto z
101 deka da 10-24 yocto y
The standard of time
 The measurements of time has two aspects. For civil and for some scientific we
want to know the time of day so that we can order events in sequence. In most
scientific work we want to know how long an event last (time interval). That any
time standard must be able to answer the questions “ at what time does it occur?”
“ and how long does it last?”
 We can use any phenomenon that repeat itself as a measure of time. The
measurements consists of counting the repetitions, including the fraction thereof.
We can use an oscillating pendulum, a mass-spring system, or quartz crystal, for
example. Of the many respective phenomena in nature , the rotation of the Earth
on its axis, which determine the length of the day, was used as a time standard for
centuries. One (mean solar) second was defined to be 1/86,400 of a (mean solar)
day.
 TABLE 1-3 Some measured Time intervals.

Time Interval Seconds

Life time of proton > 1040
Half-life of double beta decay of 82 Se 3 x 1027
Age of Universe 5 x 1017
Age of Pyramid of cheops 1 x 1011
Human life expectancy (U.S.) 2 x 109
Time of earth orbit around the sun (1 year) 3 x 107
Time of earth’s rotation about its axis (1 day) 9 x 104
Period of typical low-orbit Earth satellite 5 x 104
Time between normal heartbeats 8 x 10-1
Period of concert - A tuning fork 2 x 10-3
Period of oscillation of 3-cm microwaves 1 x 10-10
Typical period of rotation of a molecule 1 x 10-12
Shortest light pulse produced (1990) 6 x 10-15
Lifetime of least stable particles <10-23
The standard of Length
 The first international standard of length was a bar of platinum-iridium alloy called
the standard meter, which was kept at the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures near Paris. The distances between two fine lines engraved near the ends of
a bar, when the bar was held at a temperature of zero degrees celsius and supported
mechanically in a prescribe way, was defined as one mater. Historically , the meter
was intended to be one tenth millionth of the distance from the north pole to the
equator along the meridian line through Paris. However, accurate measurements
showed that the standard meter bar differ slightly about (0.023%) from this value.
 Because the standard meter is not very accessible, accurately master copies of it
were made and sent to standardized laboratories through out the world. These
secondary standards were used to calibrate other, still more accessible measuring
rods. Thus until recently, every measuring rod or device derived its authority from
the standard meter through a complicated chain of comparisons using microscopes
and dividing engines. Since 1959 this statements had been also been true for the
yard, whose legal definition in the united states was adopted in that year to be.
 1 yard = 0.941 meter (exactly)
 1 = 2.54 centimeters (exactly)

Length Meters
Distance to the farthest observed quasar 2 x 1026
Distance to the andromeda galaxy 2 x 1022
Radius of our Galaxy 6 x 1019
Distance to the nearest star (Proxima Centauri) 4 x 1016
Mean orbit radius for the most distant planet (Pluto) 2 x 1012
Radius of the sun 7 x 108
Radius of the earth 6 x 106
Height of Mt. Everest 9 x 103
Height of Typical Person 2 x 100
Size of typical virus 1 x 10-6
Radius of hydrogen atom 5 x 10-11
Effective radius of proton 1 x 10-15
 The meter is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time
interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second.
 This equivalent saying that the speed of light c is now defined as
c = 299,792,458 m/s (exactly)
Sample Problem 1-2. A light-year is a measure of length (not a measure of time)
equal to the distance that light travel in one year. Compute the conversion factor
between light-years and meters, and find the distance to the star Proxima Centauri
(4.0x1016 m) in light years.
Solution The conversion factor from years to second is
1 y = 1 y x xxx = 3.16 x 107 s
The speed of lights is three significant figures 3.0 x 108 m/s
Thus in one year travel a distance of (3.00 x 108 m/s)(3.16 x 107 s) = 9.48 x 1015 m.
 The distance to Proxima Centauri is
4.0 x 1016 m x = 4.2 light year
THE STANDARD OF MASS
The SI standard of mass is a platinum-iridium cylinder kept at International Bureau
of Weights and Measures and assigned, by international agreement, a mass of 1
kilogram. Secondary standards are sent to standardizing laboratories in other
countries and the mass of other bodies can be found by an equal arm balance
technique to a precision of one part in 108.
 Table 1-5 Some measured masses.

Object Kilogram
Known universe (Estimate) 1053
Our galaxy 2 x 1043
Sun 2 x 1030
Earth 6 x 1024
Moon 7 x 1022
Ocean Liner 7 x 107
Elephant 4 x 103
Person 6 x 101
Grape 3 x 10-3
Speck of dust 7 x 10-10
Virus 1 x 10-15
Penicillin molecule 5 x 10-17
Uranium atom 4 x 10-26
Proton 2 x 10-27
Electron 9 x 10-31
 PRECISION OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
As we improve the quality of our measuring instruments and the sophistication
of our techniques, at ever increasing levels of precisions; that is, we can extend the
measured results to more and more significant figures and correspondingly reduce the
experimental uncertainty of the result. Both the numbers of significant figures and the
uncertainty tells something about our estimate of the precision of the result. That is,
the result x = 3 m. implies that we know less about x probably lies between 3.14158
m. and 3.14160 m. If you express x as 3 m. when in fact you really know that x is
3.14159 m., you are withholding information than might be important. On the other
hand, if you express x is 3.14159 m. when you really no basis for knowing anything
other than x = 3 m., you are now somewhat being dishonest by claiming to have more
information than you really do. Attention to significant figures is important when
presenting the result of measurements and calculations, and equally as wrong to
include to many as to few.
Rules to follow in deciding how many significant figures to keep.

1. Counting from the left and ignoring leading zeros, keep all digits up to the first
doubtful one.
2. When multiplying or dividing, the number of significant figures in the product or
quotient should be no greater than the number of significant figures in the least
precise of the factors.
3. In adding and subtracting, the least significant digit of the sum or difference
occupies the same relative position as the least significant digit of the quantities
being added or subtracted.
Examples: ADD
103.9 kg.
2.10 kg.
0.319 kg.
106.319 kg. Answer: 106.3 kg.
 UNCERTAINTY AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
UNCERTAINTY - Maximum difference between the measured value and the
true value (error).
ACCURACY - How close is the measurement to the true value
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES - Number of meaningful digits (The G’s Favor)
 Non zero digit is always significant.
 Any zeros between two significant figures are significant.
 A final zero or trailing zeros in the decimal portion ONLY are significant.
Examples

1. The fourteen tallest peaks in the world are referred to us “eight- thousanders”
meaning their summits are over 8,000 meter above sea level. What is the
elevation in feet of 8,000 meters?
2. You have seen a nice ground fit for your planned establishments whose area is
1508 sq. ft. What is its area in square meters.
3. Where the posted speed limit is 75 miles per hour. What is the speed limit (a) in
meters per second. (b) in kilometer per hour.
4. A solid piece of lead has a mass of 23.94 and a volume of 2.10 cm3. From these
area calculate the density of lead in SI units. (kg. per cubic meter)
5. An ore loader moves 1203 tons per hour. Convert these rate for pounds per
seconds. Use 1 ton = 2000lbs.
6. A rectangular building of 75 ft. and a length of 134 ft. Determine the area of this
lot in terms of sq. meter.
7. Assume it takes 7.2 minutes to fill the 30.0 gal. gasoline tank. (a) Calculate the
rate that which the tank is filled in cu. M. per seconds. (b) Determine the time
interval in hours required to fill 1.00m3 volume at the same rate (1 US gal = 231
in3).
8. Starting with the definition of 1 inch = 25.4 cm. Find the number of (a)
kilometers in 1.00 mile (b) feet in 1.00 kilometer
MOTION IN ONE DIRECTION
KINEMATICS

A branch of mechanics that study the motion of

objects by introducing the terms that are used to
describe the motion and showing how they are relate to
one another. By specifying the position, velocity, and
acceleration of an object, we can described how the
object moves, including the direction of its motion,
how that direction changes with time, whether the
object speeds up or slow down and so forth.
 Example:
A scouting party has become trapped in a forest away from their field camp
(Figure - 1). Based on their explorations, the scouts know that they are 2.0 km. from
the field camp in the direction of 300 west of north. They also know that the filed
camp is located 3.0 km from the base camp in a direction of 450 north of east. They
wish to radio their position to the base camp so that food and supplies can dropped by
air as close to their position as possible. How can they pinpoint their location to the
base camp?
 North

 West East

 South
 Relative locations of the base camp, field camp, and scouting party can be specified
using vectors.
 Properties of vectors:
To represent a vector on a diagram we draw an arrow. The length of the arrow is
drawn to be proportional to the magnitude of the vector using any convenient scale.
Other vectors that are part of the same problem are drawn using the same scale, so
that the relative magnitudes of the vectors.
The magnitude or length of vectors is indicated by |ā|, which gives us no directional
direction at all about the vector ā. We will usually write the magnitude of a vector by
a single italic symbol such as a, which is the same meaning as |ā|.
COMPONENTS OF VECTORS:
We can specify vector by giving its length and direction as for example of position of
vectors of figure above. It is often useful however, to describe a vector in terms of its
components. Its magnitude of length is a and its direction is specified by the angle ø,
which is measured with respect to the positive x axis. The x and y components of a
are defined by;
A more formal way to write a vector in terms of its components is based on a set of
unit vectors. Unit vectors are vectors of length 1 in the direction of each of the
coordinate axes. In the Cartesian coordinate system, the x and y unit vectors are
indicated by î and ĵ . Using the unit vector, we can write the vector a as
a = a x î + ay ĵ
 Y Y

ĵ ay ĵ a
X X
î ax î

 (a) The unit vector î and ĵ. (b) The vector component of a. When we want replace
a by its vector components, it is helpful to draw a double line through the original
vector, as shown; this help to remind us not to consider the original vector any
more.


s b
 b a a

 (a) Vectors a and b. (b) To find the sum s of vectors a and b, we slide b without
changing its magnitude or direction until its tail is on the head of a. Then the
vector s = a + b is drawn from the tail of a to the head of b.
 Two vectors are equal to each other only if their corresponding components are
equal.
 `
Describing Motion with Words
1. Distance and Displacement
•Distance is a scalar quantity which refers to how much ground an object has
covered during its motion.
•Displacement is a vector quantity which refers to how far out of place an object
is; it is the object's overall change in position.
2. Speed and Velocity

●Speed refers to how fast an object is moving.

● Velocity refers to the rate at which an object changes its position. Velocity is
direction aware.
VECTORS AND SCALARS QUANTITY
 VECTORS - Quantities which are specified by both magnitude and direction. (Force,
Velocity and acceleration)
 SCALARS - Quantities that are completely specified by a magnitude. (Distance,
speed and volume)
COMPONENTS AND RESULTANTS OF VECTORS
Y Y
aX b X

ā aY b bY

Ɵ X Ɵ X

ax = acosƟ ; ay = asinƟ ; a = ; TanƟ = a / ax2

VELOCITY AND ACCELARATION
 Speed – Distance traveled per unit time, regardless of direction. (scalar quantity)
 Velocity – Rate of change of Displacements (vector quantity)
 Uniform motion – Constant velocity
- Constant speed and direction
SOLVING AVERAGE SPEED AND AVERAGE VELOCITY;
Ave. speed = =
Ave. Velocity = =
SAMPLE PROBLEM
 An Airplane travel 209 km on a straight course making an angle of 22.5 0 east of
due north. How far north and how far east does the plane travel from its starting
point?
 An automobile travels due east on the level road for 32 km. It then turns due north
at an intersection and travel 42 km. before stopping. Find the vector that indicate
the resulting location of the car?
 Three vectors in the xy plane are expressed with respect to the coordinate system
as
a = 4.3i – 1.7j
b = -2.9i + 2.2j
c = - 3.6j
In which the components is given in the arbitrary units. Find the vector “s”. Which is
the sum of each vectors.
POSITION, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION VECTORS
 Average velocity – in any interval is defined to be displacement ( change in
position) divided by the time interval during which the displacements occurs.

 Vav - Average velocity

 Xo, Xf, tf, to - Initial and final position, Initial and final time
 In Kinematics, we describe the motion of a particle using vectors to specify its
position, velocity and acceleration.
Figure below shows a particles moving along an arbitrary path in three dimensions.
At any particular time t, the particle can be located by its x, y, and z coordinates,
which are the three components of the position vector r.
r = xî + yĵ + zk
Where î, ĵ and k are the cartesian unit vectors, as shown below


ĵ r z
î y
k x
x y

The position of a particle moving on its path is located by the position vector r,
which has component x, y, and z. Also shown the three cartesian unit vector î, ĵ
and k.


z t2 Δr
r2 t1
ĵ r1 z
î y
k x
x y

In the interval from Δt from t1 to t2, the particle moves from position vector r1 to
position vector r2. Its displacements in that interval is Δr = r2 – r1.


 z
 Δr
ĵ z
î y
k x
x y

As the interval grows smaller, the displacement vector approaches the actual path of
the particle.
 Suppose the particle is located at a position r1 at a time t1, and its moves its path
to position r2 at a time t2, we define the displacement vector Δr as the change in
position that occurs in this interval:
Δr = r2 – r1
 The three vector Δr,r2 and r1 have the same relation to vector a, b and c in the
previous discussion. That is using the graphical head to tail addition method, Δr
added to r1 gives the sum r2.
 The average velocity in any interval is defined to be the displacements (change in
position) divided by the time interval during which the displacements occurs.
Vave. =

Where:
= t2 – t1. In this equation, the vector by the positive scalar , so
that the vector vave points in the same direction as vector Δr.
 Like the displacement, the average velocity in any interval depends
only on the location on the particle at the beginning and end of the
interval. Note especially that if the particles return to its starting
point, then according to the definition the average velocity is zero.
 Average velocity may be helpful in considering the overall behavior of a particle
during some interval, but in describing the details of its motion it would be more
useful to have a mathematical function that gives the velocity at every point in the
motion. This is the instantaneous velocity v. When we use the term “velocity” we
mean the instantaneous velocity.
 To find the instantaneous velocity, wee reduce the size of the interval Δt; as we do so, the vector Δr
approaches the actual path and it becomes the tangent to the approaches the instantaneous velocity v:
v =
The direction of v is tangent to the path of a particle, indicating the direction in which the particle is
moving at that instant of time.
v =
The derivative of a vector is found by taking the derivative of each of its components:
= (xî + yĵ + zk) = î + j + k

The unit vector î, ĵ and k are constant in both magnitude and direction and so they can be treated as
constant in taking the derivative; in other coordinate system (such as cylindrical or spherical polar
system) the unit vectors may change direction with time and so those vectors do not pass unchanged
through the derivatives.
 The vector v can also be written in terms of components as
v = vxî + vyĵ + vzk.
 Since two vectors can be equal only if their corresponding components are equal,
vx = , vy = , vz = ,
 The three dimensional vector relation is equivalent to the three one dimensional
relations.
 The term speed (taken to mean instantaneous speed) usually refers to the
magnitude of the instantaneous velocity, with no indication of direction; that is,
the speed v is Ι v Ι. The speedometer of a car indicates its speed, not its velocity,
because it does not specify a direction. Speed is a scalar, Since it lacks directional
information. We can also define the average speed.
average speed =
 Acceleration
The velocity of a particle may change in magnitude or direction as it moves. The
change in velocity with time is called acceleration. Average Acceleration in this
interval as the change in velocity per unit time,
aav. = .
The change in velocity means vfinal - vinitial . As in the case of average
velocity, the average acceleration tells us nothing about the variation of v during the
interval The direction of aav. Is the same as the direction of
The instantaneous acceleration a is obtain from the limit for vanishingly small
time intervals:
a= =
 ax = , a y = , az = ,
In general the direction of the acceleration has no relation to the direction of v. It is
possible for v and a to be parallel, antiparallel, or perpendicular to each other, or at
any other relative angle.
Because v is a vector quantity, a change in its direction gives an acceleration, even if
its magnitude is unchanged.
For example, the components of v can change in such a way that the magnitude of v
(=remains constant.
 A particle moves in the xy plane so that its x and y coordinates vary with time
according to x(t) = At3 + Bt and y(t) = Ct2 + D. where A = 1.00 m/s2, B = -
32.0 m/s, C = 5.0 m/s2 and D = 12.0 m. Find the position, velocity, and
acceleration of the particle when t = 3 s.
The position is given by equation r = xî + yĵ with the expressions given for x(t)
and y(t):
r = xî + yĵ = (At3 + Bt)î + (Ct2 + D)ĵ.
evaluate the expression t = 3s,
r = (-69 m)î + (57m)ĵ.
One dimensional kinematics

 In one dimensional kinematics, a particle can move only along a straight line. It
may change its speed or even reverse direction, but it motion is always the line.
Within this limitation, we can consider many different physical situations, such as
a falling stone, an accelerating train, a breaking car, a sliding hockey puck, a crate
being pulled up ramp, or a past-moving electron in an x-ray tube.
Kinds of motion with the equations or graphs that describe them.
1. No motion at all. Here the particle occupy the same position at all times.
Suppose the particle is on x axis at the coordinates A, so that (at all times)
x(t) = A
a graph of this “motion” is shown figure next slide. The velocity which remains
constant is zero.
 x vx

0 t o t

(a) The position (b) The velocity of the bead on a wire at rest x = A.
 INSTANTENEOUS VELOCITY – vector approaches the actual path and in
becomes tangent to the path in the limit approaches to zero.
 ACCELERATION – Time rate of change of velocity. The change in velocity may
be a change in magnitude, direction or both.
 INSTATANEOUS ACCELERATION
 MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION
 POSITION VARIES WITH TIME.
 VELOCITY AS A FUNCTION OF POSITION:
SAMPLE [ROBLEMS

 You drive your own BMW down a straight road for 5.2 miles at 43 mi/h, at that point
you run out of gas. You walk 1.2 miles farther, to the nearest gas station, in 27 minutes.
What is your average velocity from the time that you start your car to the time that you
arrive at the gas station?
 An alpha particle ( the nucleus of a helium atom) travels along the inside of an
evacuated straight tube 2.0 m long that forms part of the particle accelerator. The alpha
particles enters the tube ( at t = 0) moving at a velocity of 9.5 x 10 5 m/s and emerges
from the other end at time t = 8.0 x 10-7 s. (a) If the acceleration of the particle is
constant, what is the acceleration? (b) What is the velocity when it leaves the tube?
3. The acceleration of a motorcycle is given by
a (t )  At  Bt 2
where,
A  1.5m / s 3 and B  0. .12m / s 4
The motorcycle is at rest at the origin at time t = 0. Find:
(a) position and velocity as a function of time
(b) maximum velocity it attains.
 You brake your Porsche with constant acceleration from the velocity of 23.6 m/s
( about 53 mph well, below the speed limit, of course) to 12.5 m/s over a distance
of 105 m. (a) How long time elapse during this interval? (b) What is the
acceleration? (c) if you were to continue breaking with the same constant
acceleration, how much longer will it take for you to stop and how much
additional distance would you cover?
.The position of a particle which moves along a straight line is defined by the relation X(t)=t3 -
6t2 -15t + 40, where X is in meters and t is in seconds. Determine the:
a) time in which the velocity will be zero.
b) position of the particle at that time.
c) distance traveled by the particle from t=0 to time t at zero velocity
d) acceleration of the particle at that time.
e) particle’s maximum velocity
FREE FALLING BODIES
 The most common examples of motion with (nearly) constant acceleration is that
of falling body near the earth surface. If we neglect air resistance, we find a
remarkable fact: at any given point near the earth surface, all bodies regardless of
their size, shape or composition, fall in the same acceleration. This acceleration,
denoted by the symbol “g” is called free fall acceleration (or gravitational
acceleration).
 Near the earth’s surface the magnitude of “g” is approximately 9.8 m/s2, a value
that we use throughout the discussion unless otherwise we specify. The direction
of the free-fall acceleration at any point established what we mean by the word
“down” at that point.
 We label the direction of free fall as the “y-axis” and take to be “positive”
direction to be upward.
 We replace the constant acceleration “a” to “- g” since our choice of the positive y
direction to be upward, means that the downward acceleration is negative.
 FREE FALL EQUATION:
1. Vy = Vo - gt
2. y = yo + Voyt - ½ g t2
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
 A body is dropped from rest and falls freely. Determine the position and velocity of the
body after 1.0s, 2.0s, 3.0s and 4.0s have elapsed.
 A ball is thrown vertically upward from the ground with a speed of 25.2 m/s. (a) How long
does it take to reach the highest point? (b) How high does it rise? (c) At what times will it
be above the ground?
 A rocket launched from rest from underwater base a distance of 125 meter below the
surface the body of water. It moves vertically upward with an unknown but assumed
constant acceleration (the combined effect of its engines, Earth gravity, and the buoyancy
and drag of the water), and it reach the surface in a time of 2.15 s. When it breaks the
surface the engines automatically shutoff (to make it more difficult to detect) and it
continues to rise. What maximum height does it reach? 9 ignore any effects at the surface.)