Learning Outcome :

Candidates should be able to

• predict and explain the shapes and

bond angles in molecules and ions
using the principle of valence shell
electron pair repulsion,
e.g. linear, trigonal planar,
tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramid,
octahedral, V-shaped, T-shaped,
seesaw and pyramidal
 Shapes of Molecules & Ions
• Ionic bonds are non-directional.
• → electric field surrounding the cation & anion is
spherically symmetrical.

Lithium cation
Lithium atom Lithium anion

Electrons are moving around, not localised

• In covalent bond, the shared pair of e remains
localised in a definite space between nuclei of 2
atoms.
• Covalent bonds are directional.
• Molecules in which atoms are
bonded covalently have definite shapes.
• Shape of molecule/ions with single covalent
bonds can be predicted by using the valence-
shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR).

• This is done by determining the number of

electron pairs (lone pair & bond pair)
surrounding the central atom.
 VSEPR
• Electron pairs repel each other.
• Repulsion between electron pairs decreases in the order
as follows :

lone pair - lone pair OIC

lone pair - bond pair
bond pair - bond pair

In bond pairs electrons, the negative charge density is somewhat

reduced by the nuclear charge of the atom. Hence, the repulsion is less.

Lone pairs do not have to deal with this positive charge, naturally their
repulsion is stronger.
Shapes of Molecules :
Geometry Bond Lone Molecular Examples
pairs pairs geometry

2 0

3 0

2 1
Geometry Bond Lone Molecular Examples
pairs pairs geometry

4 0

3 1

2 2
Geometry Bond Lone Molecular Examples
pairs pairs geometry

5 0

4 1

3 2

2 3
Geometry Bond Lone Molecular Examples
pairs pairs geometry

6 0

5 1

4 2
Predicting shapes of simple molecules :

1. Draw Lewis structure of the molecule.

2. Determine the number of valence e− of the central atom.

3. Add the number of e− contributed by the terminal atoms.

4. Anion : add 1 e− for every 1 negative charge.

Cation : minus 1 e− for every 1 positive charge.

5. Determine the number of e pairs (lone pair & bond pair) surrounding
the central atom.
 Number of
valence e¯
F2O

Number of e¯
contributed

AsH3
NH4+

BH4¯
CH3+

CH3¯
 Axial
ICl2¯ position

Equatorial
position

Lone pairs of electrons exert greater repulsions than bond pairs.

Lone pair of electrons occupy the equatorial position with bond angle 120⁰
(greater than axial position with bond angle 90⁰).
I3¯
 ICl4¯

For octahedral molecules, lone pairs occupy the axial position (180˚) to
minimise repulsions.
Predicting the • Draw Lewis structure of the
shape of molecule.
molecules/ions
containing • Determine the number of
multiple bonds bonding pairs & lone pairs
surrounding the central atom.

• Multiple bonds are treated

like single bond (1 bonding
pair).
• Number of electron pairs around S :
Bond pair = 4
Lone pair = 0
• Shape : Tetrahedral
• Number of electron pairs around N :
Bond pair = 3
Lone pair = 0
• Shape : Trigonal planar
• Number of electron pairs around S :
Bond pair = 2
Lone pair = 1

• Shape : Bent / V-shape

STPM 2014 Q19(a)
(i) State the principle of the valence shell electron pair
repulsion theory (VSEPR). [2]
(ii) Draw the Lewis structure of ClF2+ and SF4 . Using the
VSEPR theory, predict and explain their shapes. [8]

Answer
(i) Electron pairs repel each other until a geometry by which
the electron pairs are arranged as far apart as possible is
achieved.
The magnitude of repulsion force:
lone pair–lone pair > lone pair–bond pair > bond pair–bond
pair.
(ii) Lewis structure of ClF2+ ion: Lewis structure of SF4
molecule:

Central chlorine atom has 2 Central sulphur atom has 4

bond pairs and 2 lone pairs of bond pairs and 1 lone pair of
electrons. electrons.
It is V-shaped / bent shape. The molecule has a see-saw
geometry.
The bond angle is less than .
The bond angle
is <
<
<
MPM Reports
In part (a)(i), many candidates were able to state the
principle of the valence-shell-electron-pair repulsion theory
(VSEPR).

In part (a)(ii), most candidates were able to use the VSEPR

theory to explain the shapes of ClF2+ and SF4 but they lost
marks for not stating the bond angles for ClF2+ (either
104.5° or less than 109.5°) and SF4 (less than 90° or less
than 120° or less than 180° ). The candidates also spelled
incorrectly as trigonal planner, sew-saw, see-sew instead of
the actual shapes.
STPM 2013 Q19(b)
Draw the Lewis structures of and . Using the valence-shell electron
repulsion theory, deduce both their shapes. [9]
Answer

Central O atom in ozone is surrounded by 1 lone pair e and 2 bond

pair e. it is hybridised with bond angle less than . It has bent shape.

Central I atom in ion is surrounded by 3 lone pair e and 2 bond pair e.

It is hybridised with 3 lone pair e placed along the equatorial position
whereas 2 bonded pair e along the axial position. It is linear in shape
with bond angle .
MPM Reports
In part (b), many candidates were unable to draw the Lewis
structure of O3 and I3– correctly. The negative charge on the
I3– species was not shown in the Lewis diagram. Most
candidates did not mention the value of the angle in the
Lewis structure. For example, the angle for ozone is less
than 120° and the angle for I3– ion is 180º.
The correct Lewis structure for ozone and I3– are as follow:
STPM 2017 Q18(a)(i)
An ammonia molecule accepts one hydrogen ion to form
ammonium ion or loses one hydrogen ion to form an amide
ion. Draw the Lewis structures of ammonium and amide
ions. Compare the shapes of the two ions. [8]
Answer

[1]

2 bond pair e and 2 lone pair e

[1] surround the central N atom. [1]
Bent shape with H-N-H bond
4 bond pair e and 0 lp e surround angle < 109.5°. [1]
the central N atom. [1]
Acc to VSEPR theory, bond pair e
will be arranged as far as possible
to min repulsion between them.[1]
Hence, NH4+ ion acquires a
tetrahedral shape with H-N-H
bond angle 109.5°. [2]
MPM report
In part (a)(i), most of the candidates were unable to draw
the correct Lewis structures for ammonium and amide ions,
mostly by not placing the positive and negative charges on
N. Most of them were able to state that ammonium ion is
tetrahedral with bond angle 109.5° while amide ion is bent
or V-shaped. They made mistake when writing the formula
of ammonium ion as NH4- and amide ion as NH2+. The
candidates incorrectly wrote bond angle as 107.5° instead
of 109.5° for NH4+ ion. They also did not state that the bond
angle for amide ion is less than 109.5 °. Instead,
candidates wrote the exact angle as 104° or 104.5°. The
candidates did not state the VSEPR theory to explain the
shapes of the ions and wrote an incorrect term for bond
pair, namely 'bonded pair'.
STPM 2014 Q6
Which statement about the Lewis structure of and ions is
true?
A Both ions are trigonal planar in shape
B Both ions have a formal charge on the central atom
C Both ions form two double bonds and one single bond
D Both ions have central atom with one pair of unpaired
electron.
STPM 2016 Q5
The shapes of molecules and polyatomic ions could be
determined using VSEPR theory. Which species has the
smallest bond angle?
A
B
C
D
STPM 2018 Q5
and ions are polyatomic ions with different bond angles.
Which sequence of ions is in ascending order of their bond
angles?
A
B
C
D
STPM 2014 Q6
Which statement about the Lewis structure of and ions is
true?
A Both ions are trigonal planar shape
B Both ions have a formal charge on the central atom
C Both ions form two double bonds and one single bond
D Both ions have central atom with one pair of unpaired e
 Lone Pair e & Bond Angles

𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒆 ,𝑪𝑯 𝟒 𝑨𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒂 , 𝑵𝑯 𝟑 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 , 𝑯 𝟐 𝑶

H2O : two lone pairs of e− exert stronger repulsive force on the two
bond-pairs pushing them closer → decreasing its bond angle to
104.5˚.

NH3 : one lone pair of e− → repulsive force on bond pair is lesser →

bond angle > H2O .
 Bond Angle & Electronegativity
• Electronegativity → ability to attract the bonding e−.

Bonding pair

x
B A
(B is more electronegative than A)

B B B A

(non-polar) (polar)
 •• •• •• ••
x Ox S
x x

H H H H

104.5˚ 92.5˚

• Oxygen is more electronegative than sulphur

→ bond pair e in the O–H bonds are closer to
oxygen atom resulting in a greater repulsion between
the two O–H bonds.
→ bond angle larger
Question
Which of the following statements is true for both ammonia
and phosphine?
A The shape of both molecules is T.
B The bond angle H-N-H is larger than that of H-P-H.
C Nitrogen is less electronegative than phosphorus.
D They are non-polar molecules.
Question
A hydroxonium ion, , is formed when a water molecule
accepts a proton.

Which of the following best describes the change in bond

angle in when ion is formed?
A Increases to approximately 107°
B Increases to approximately 120°
C Decreases to approximately 92°
D Decreases to approximately 107°
Question
The molecules and have the bond angles a, b and c
respectively.

Which of the following is true?

1. a < b
2. b < c
3. a > c
Question
Discuss qualitatively the bond angles in and
Answer
N atom in both and are hybridised.
There are 3 bond pairs and 1 lone pair surround the central
N atoms.
H-N-H bond angle is larger than F-N-F bond angle.
Fluorine is more electronegative than hydrogen. Hence, F
attracts the bond pair e more strongly than H does.
Bond pair-bond pair repulsion is less in than
H-N-H bond angle is .
F-N-F bond angle is .
 Resonance Structure
Resonance is a way of describing delocalised electrons within certain
molecules or polyatomic ions where the bonding cannot be expressed
by one single Lewis formula.

• C – O (bond length = 0.143 nm)

• C = O (bond length = 0.116 nm)

X-ray diffraction studies

show that the 3 CO bonds
are identical (0.0125 nm)
average value of the normal
CO and CO bond lengths.
Possible Lewis structure with the C = O resonating
between the 3 structures.

O 2−

C
O O

Resonance hybrid
Resonance in ion
Learning Outcome :
Candidates should be able to

• explain the concept of overlapping

and hybridisation of the s and p
orbitals as exemplified by BeCl2,
BF3, CH4, N2, HCN, NH3 and H2O
molecules.
• explain the inertness of nitrogen
molecule in terms of its strong triple
bond and non-polarity
 𝑯𝒚𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
• Process of mixing the non-equivalent atomic
orbitals to form a set of equivalent hybrid
orbitals with similar energies, shapes & size.

• 3 types of hybrid orbitals: Energy

p orbital
(a) sp
(b) sp2
sp hybrid
(c) sp3 orbital
s orbital
 𝒔𝒑 𝒉𝒚𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

• sp hybrid orbitals signifies that one s and one p orbitals

are hybridised to form two sp hybrid orbitals
• To minimise electron repulsion, the two sp hybrid orbitals
are arranged in a linear fashion.

𝒔𝒑 𝒔𝒑
 sp hybridisation in BeCl2
• Valence electronic configuration of
Be : 2s2 Cl : 3s2 3p5

𝑩𝒆

Linear
𝒔𝒑𝟐𝒉𝒚𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

One s & two p orbitals hybridise to

form three sp2 hybrid orbitals .
 sp2 hybridisation in BF3
2𝑝 𝑧
• Valence electronic configuration of
B : 2s2 2p1 F : 2s2 2p5
𝝈
(Boron)
2𝑝 𝑧 𝝈
𝝈

2𝑝 𝑧

𝑻𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒓
𝑩
𝒔𝒑 𝟑 𝒉𝒚𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

One s & three p orbitals

hybridise to form four
sp3 hybrid orbitals .
 sp3 hybridisation in CH4
• Valence electronic configuration of
C : 2s2 2p2 H : 1s1 𝑪

𝝈
Tetrahedral 𝝈
𝝈
 Hybridisation in NH3
• Valence electronic configuration of
N : 2s2 2p3

𝝈 sp3
sp3
𝝈
1s
sp3
Trigonal 𝝈 1s
pyramidal
1s
 Hybridisation in H2O
• Valence electronic configuration of
O : 2s2 2p4

sp3

sp3
𝝈
𝝈 1s Bent
1s
p orbitals can overlap in 2 ways :
(a) (end-to-end overlapping) → sigma (σ) bond

• σ bond → covalent bond

• e density concentrated in region along the internuclear
axis.
(b) → pi ( ) bond

• Overlapping of unhybridised p orbitals.

• e density concentrated above & below the
plane of nuclei.
• Weaker than σ bond.
• Nitrogen

2 𝑝𝑦
2𝑝 𝑦 2 𝑝 𝑧

2 𝑝𝑧

N
lone pair sigma bond lone pair
• bond → end-to-end
overlapping of hybrids.

2 𝑝𝑦 2 𝑝𝑦
• bond → sideways 𝜋
overlapping of and 𝜋 2 𝑝𝑧
orbitals.
2 𝑝𝑧
 2 𝑝𝑦 2 𝑝𝑦
𝜋
𝜋 2 𝑝𝑧

𝜎
2 𝑝𝑧

The Inertness of Nitrogen Molecules

Nitrogen is a non-polar molecule with strong triple covalent bond
between nitrogen atoms.
 HCN
2 𝑝𝑦 2 𝑝𝑦
𝜋
𝜎 𝜋
𝑠𝑝 𝑠𝑝

H C 𝜎 N
1𝑠
𝑠𝑝 𝑠𝑝
2 𝑝𝑧 2 𝑝𝑧
Question
The diagram below shows the structural formula of 4-
methylbenzoic acid. What is the hybridisation of the carbon
atoms labelled a, b and c?

a b c
A
B
C
D
Question
What are the values for the bond angles labelled and

A
B 120° 109.5° 120°
C 90° 109.5° 90°
D 109.5° 90° 120°
180° 109.5° 120°
STPM 2022 Q5
Two molecules, R and T, have three hydrogen atoms. The
central atom R is hybridised and the central atom of T is
hybridised. Which is true about both molecules?
A Non-polar molecules.
B Have equal bond angles.
C May react to form a coordinate bond.
D Have the same geometries at the central atom.
STPM 2021 Q4
Two orbitals are shown in the diagram below.

What is represented by both orbitals?

A s orbital
B p orbital
C sp orbital
D sp2 orbital
STPM 2014 Q4
Which statement accounts for the inertness of nitrogen
gas?
A It is a linear molecule
B It has an octet structure
C It has a strong triple bond
D Nitrogen atom uses hybridised orbital for bonding.
STPM 2019 Q6
The shape of is trigonal pyramidal and the molecule can
form a coordinate bond with Which is true about the
molecule?
A Acts as Lewis acid
B Has no lone pair electrons
C is less electronegative than H
D undergoes hybridisation to form a bond with H
STPM 2017 Q3
Nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine and neon are elements in Period
2 of the Periodic Table. Which statement is true about the
elements in this period?
A Nitrogen atom can undergo and
hybridisations.
B The number of paired and unpaired e in an oxygen
atom is equal.
C ion has an empty orbital.
D ion is chemically inert.
STPM 2018 Q4
The types of covalent bonds in organic molecules are and
bonds. How many covalent bonds are in a benzonitrile,
molecule?
bond bond
A 8 5
B 12 3
C 13 3
D 13 5
STPM 2016 Q19(a)(i)
Carbon and nitrogen atoms have electron configurations as
shown below.

Describe the formation of hybridised orbitals of carbon and

nitrogen in a peptide bond . [5]
Answer
Valence e configuration of C : Valence e configuration of N :

Before hybridisation, an e from

orbital is excited to orbital.
valence e conf :
(hybridisation)

(hybridisation)
e in the orbital hybridised with e
in three orbitals to produce
hybridisation, resulting in the
e in the orbital hybridised with e formation of 3 bonds around N
in two orbitals to produce atom.
hybridisation, resulting in the
formation of 3 and 1 bonds
around C atom.
MPM Reports
Question 19
In part (a)(i), many candidates were unable to deduce the structure of –
CONH–. They could not fully describe the hybridisation of valence
electrons of C and N. The candidates should first state that the valence
electron configuration of C is 2s2 2p2 and of N is 2s2 2p3 . In carbon,
one electron from the 2s orbital is excited to the vacant 2p orbital. The
electron in the 2s orbital and the electrons in two 2p orbitals undergo
sp2 hybridisation. In nitrogen, the electrons in the 2s and 2p orbitals will
undergo sp3 hybridisation. Thus, the carbon will be able to form the
three σ bonds and one π bond. Meanwhile, nitrogen will be able to
form three σ bonds. Only few candidates who knew the structure of a
peptide bond were able to determine the type of hybridisations. Most of
them were able to give the valence electronic configuration for the
excited state of carbon as , carbon undergoes hybridisation of sp2 and
nitrogen undergoes hybridisation of sp3. However, candidates failed to
mention that in peptide bond, the carbon forms three σ and one π
bonds and nitrogen forms three σ bonds.
STPM 2016 Q19(a)(iii)
Explain the differences in bond length between carbon and
nitrogen in both and ion. [4]
Answer
bond length in is longer than that of the ion. [1]
A single covalent bond (σ bond) formed between C and N
atoms in . [1]
Triple covalent bond (1σ and 2π bonds) formed between C
and N atoms in ion. [1]
Triple covalent bond in is stronger, thus, is shorter than
single covalent bond in ion. [1]
MPM report
In part (a)(iii), most of the candidates were unable to
explain the differences in bond length between carbon and
nitrogen in both –CONH– and CN–. The correct
explanation for this part is that there is a triple bond (1σ
and 2π bonds) between C and N in CN– and only a single
bond (1σ bond) between C and N in –CONH–. Thus, the
bond between C and N in –CONH– is longer than in CN–.
Most candidates correctly stated that the C and N bond in
peptide bond is longer, and in CN–, a triple bond is formed
between C and N while a single bond is formed in peptide
bond. However, most of them did not mention there are two
π and one σ bonds in CN– and one σ bond between C and
N in –CONH–.
Learning Outcome :
Candidates should be able to

• explain the existence of polar and

non-polar bonds (including C–Cl ,
C–N, C–O, C–Mg) resulting in polar
or/and non-polar molecules
• explain the existence of covalent
character in ionic compounds such
as , and
 Electronegativity & Polar / Non-Polar Molecules

Electronegativity (ability to attract electrons) :

• Is inversely proportional to the atomic size.
• Increases across a period
• Decreases on descending a group
 Non-Polar Covalent Bond

H H

• Formed when the bonding electrons in a

covalent bond are shared equally between
two atoms.
 Polar Covalent Bond

𝜹+¿ H Cl 𝜹−

• For covalent molecules that consists of atoms that are not

identical (HCl, H2O), the bonding electrons will be attracted
more strongly by the more electronegative element. This
results in an unsymmetrical distribution of electrons.
• This covalent bond is said to have ionic character.
(covalent with ionic character)
• The polar covalent bond carries partial positive
& partial negative charges at opposite ends,
forming a dipole.

𝜹+¿ H Cl 𝜹−

(vector)
 Cl, N, O, F are more electronegative than C.
Hence, these atoms acquire partial negative charges.

The greater the difference in electronegativity

between two covalently bonded atoms, the more
polar the bond (the higher the degree of ionic
character in the bond).
 Polar & Non-polar Molecules
• Polarity of a molecule depends on both the polarities of
the bonds and the shape of the molecule.

Non-polar
 Non-polar Molecules

Net dipole moment = 0

• These molecules are symmetrical & their dipole

moments cancel out.
Polar Molecules
 Polar Molecules

Net
dipole
 Net
dipole
 Ionic, Polar & Non-polar Bonding

• Equal sharing of • Unequal sharing of • Complete transfer of

electron electron electron
• No charge • Partial ionic charge • Full ionic charge
• Two identical non- • Two different non- • Metal & non-metal
metallic atoms metallic atoms with
Polar Molecules in Electric Field

− +
STPM 2022 Q6
and have the same relative mass. However, the boiling
point of is less than the boiling point of because
A has a larger surface area.
B is a non-polar molecule while is a polar molecule.
C has a triple bond while has a double bond.
D has pi and sigma bonds while has only sigma
bond.
STPM 2021 Q5
is a chlorinating agent. Which statement is true about the
chlorinating agent?
A is a non-polar molecule
B has a trigonal planar
C The bond angle of is
D The sulphur atom in uses hybridised orbitals
STPM 2020 Q4
A molecule with zero dipole moment is non-polar. Which of
the following is a non-polar molecule?
A
B
C
D
STPM 2019 Q18(b)
Sulphur can form various oxides such as and Compare the
polarity of these oxides. [3]
Answer
→
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
bond is polar due to the difference in electronegativity between
S and O atoms.
O is more electronegative than S.
, due to its symmetrical shape, all dipole moments are cancelled
out. Hence, is a non-polar molecule.
and are polar due to unsymmetrical shapes of these molecules.
Dipole moments cannot be cancelled out.
is more polar as it has more O atoms than .
MPM Reports
In part (b), many candidates were able to give the ascending
order of polarity of the oxides, .
However, most candidates were unable to compare the polarity
of these oxides. They failed to give the reason why is more
polar than due to having more bonds and failed to relate
polarity of the oxides with electronegativity of the atoms, dipole
moment and symmetrical factors.
STPM 2017 Q18(b)
Ammonia and phosphine, are hydrides of Group 15. which
molecule is more polar? Explain your answer. [4]
Answer
Ammonia is more polar than phosphine.
Both molecules have trigonal pyramidal shapes.
Nitrogen is more electronegative than phosphorus.
bond is more polar than bond.
MPM Report
In part (b), most of the candidates were able to state that is
more polar than , and gave explanation by stating that both
molecules have the same shape, and that N was more
electronegative than P. The candidates did not state that N–H
bond was more polar than P–H bond.
 Ions in crystal lattices of purely ionic
compounds are spherical.

When cation is small & highly

charged (high charge density), it will
distort the electron cloud of the
Fajan’s negative ion.

Rule Polarisation of the anion causes the

valence e to be partially shared
Ionic with covalent between cation & anion.
character

This gives rise to partial covalency to

the ionic bond (ionic with covalent
character), making the ionic bond even
stronger.
Degree of covalency in ionic bond
depends on :

(a) Charge density of cation

• Small size and highly charged cations
(Li+, Be2+, Al3+) have high charge
densities & hence high polarising
power. Thus, ionic compounds such as
Lithium iodide, aluminium iodide have
high covalent character.

(b) Polarisability of anion

• Anion with large ionic size and highly
charged are more polarisable and form
bonds with greater covalent character.
𝐼𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑖𝑡h 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐h𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟 :
 Ionic with covalent character

High charge density of the cation tends to pull the electron

cloud of the anion, causing a distortion in the electron cloud
of the anion. Polarisation of the anion produces covalent
character in the ionic bond. This explain why Al2O3 has high
mp and is insoluble in water.
 Charge density increases

Polarising power increases

Aluminium iodide,
• Aluminium ion has high charge density (due to its high charge
and small ionic radius).
• Iodide ion has large ionic size, has high polarisability.
• Aluminium iodide, , is a covalent compound.

Lithium iodide,
• Lithium ion has high charge density (very small ionic size).
• Large ionic size of iodide ionhas high polarisability (electron
cloud easily distorted by cation).
• Lithium iodide is a covalent compound.
• The covalency of lithium halide increases when going down
Group 17.

𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑡h𝑖𝑢𝑚h𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝐿𝑖𝐹 𝑤h𝑖𝑐h 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐.

STPM 2015 Q7
Which ionic compound has the highest covalent character?
A
B
C
D
Question
The greatest degree of ionic character is found in a bond
between oxygen and
A hydrogen
B nitrogen
C iodine
D sulphur
STPM 2018 Q16(b)
Explain why aluminium chloride is a covalent compound
whereas aluminium fluoride is an ionic compound. [3]
Answer
ion has high charge density.
ion is bigger and more polarisable than ion.
Cl is less electronegative than F.
MPM Reports
In part (b), most of the candidates stated correctly that Cl is
bigger than F, or Cl is more polarisable than F, in explaining why
aluminium chloride is a covalent compound while aluminium
fluoride is an ionic compound. However, they did not state that
aluminium ion has high charge density, that fluorine has high
electronegativity and also mentioned incorrectly chloride and
fluoride instead of chlorine and fluorine.
STPM 2016 Q19(b)
Beryllium and barium are elements in Group 2 in the
Periodic Table. Both beryllium and barium react with
chlorine to form chloride compounds. Compare the melting
points of both chloride. Explain your answer. [5]
Answer
Beryllium chloride is a simple covalent molecule with simple
molecular structure and weak van der Waals forces
between molecules. [2]
Barium chloride has giant ionic structure with strong ionic
bond between barium and chloride ions. [2]
Hence, mp of BaCl2 is higher than BeCl2. [1]
MPM report
In part (b), very few candidates were able to compare and
explain the difference in the melting point between BaCl2 and
BeCl2. Barium and beryllium form BaCl2 and BeCl2 respectively
when reacted with chlorine. BaCl2 is an ionic compound with
strong ionic bonds between the ions of opposite charge (Ba2+
and Cl–). BeCl2 is a simple covalent compound with weak
intermolecular van der Waals forces of attraction.
Thus, BeCl2 would have a lower melting point than BaCl2. A few
candidates spelled beryllium as berryllium even though the
correct spelling was given in the question. It was also noticed
that a few candidates could not correctly state the formula for the
chlorides. They write formula as BeCl and BaCl. Some of the
candidates explained in terms of size of cations and
polarisability. They also incorrectly stated that both compounds
were covalent with weak van der Waals forces or both were
ionic. Some of them were careless in writing B for barium instead
of Ba, or when comparing between Be and Ba metals instead of
BeCl and BaCl .
Learning outcome :
Candidates should be able
to
• explain metallic bonding in
terms of electron sea model.
 Metallic Bonding
• Atoms are packed very closely in solid state that the valence
shell orbitals overlap with one another to form a giant
molecular orbital.

Overlapping in valence
shell orbitals.

• The valence electrons are free to move throughout the

whole giant molecular orbital forming a sea of delocalised
electrons.
• These delocalised electrons are responsible for the thermal
& electrical conductivity of metals.
Electrostatic attraction between positive metal IONS & the sea of delocalised
electrons → metallic bonding.
The strength of metallic bonds
depends on 2 factors:

(a) Number of valence electrons

The higher the number of
valence electrons, the
stronger the metallic bonds.

(b) Size of the atom

The smaller the atomic size, the

stronger is the metallic bond.

To compare the metallic strength between Na, Mg, Al :
(a) Valence e :
• Na has 1 valence e whereas Mg and Al has 2 and 3
respectively.
* must mention number of valence electrons in each
species
(b) Atomic size :
• Atomic size decreases from Na to Al.
• Hence, metallic strength increases from Na to Al.
Na < Mg < Al
Question
Which of the following statements is true of metallic bonds?
A Metallic bonds are stronger than covalent bonds.
B Substances with metallic bonds have high melting
points.
C Metallic bonds cause metals to have high electrical
conductivity.
D Metallic bonds become stronger when atomic size
increases.
STPM 2020 Q6
Which statement explains why Cu has higher melting point
than K, even though Cu and K are metals in Period 4 of the
Periodic Table?
A Cu has stronger metallic bonding than K.
B Cu2+ has higher charge density than K+.
C Cu has a face-centred while K has a body-centred cubic
structures.
D Cu uses 3d electrons while K uses 4s electrons in
metallic bonding.
STPM 2013 Q6
The atomic number of several elements represented by
letters which are not the usual symbols for the element
concerned in the Periodic Table is shown in the table below.

Element W X Y Z
Atomic number 3 11 13 26
Which element has the strongest metallic bond?
A W
B X
C Y
D Z
STPM 2014 Q17(a)(iii) Sem 2
Chromium and magnesium are metal. Which metal has a
stronger metallic bond? Explain your answer. [2]
Answer
Chromium.
Chromium has 6 valence e whereas Mg has 2 valence e
only. Atomic size of Cr is smaller than Mg.

MPM Reports
In part (a)(iii), most of the candidates explained in terms of
delocalised electron or free mobile rather than valence
electron for metallic bonding.
Question
The following table shows the melting point of potassium
and chromium.
Metal Potassium Chromium
Valence e conf.
Melting point/

Explain the difference in the melting points of the two

metals?
Answer
Chromium has a higher melting point than potassium.
Cr has 6 valence e whereas K has 1 valence e.
Cr has more valence electrons and has smaller atomic
size than potassium. Hence its metallic bond is stronger.
𝑆𝑈𝑀𝑀𝐴𝑅𝑌 :
STPM 2008 / Q6
Which species has a trigonal planar shape ?
A BF3
B PCl3
C ClO3¯
D SO32−
STPM 2008 / Q44
The bond angles in methane, ammonia and water
molecules are shown below.

The difference in the bond angles in the three molecules

is due to
1 the number of lone pair electrons in the central atom
2 the hybridisation of the central atom
3 the electronegativity of the central atom
STPM 2007 / Q6
Which species is drawn with the correct shape ?
STPM 2000 / Q3
Which one of the following pairs of orbitals,
when overlap with one another form the
strongest single covalent bond ?
A 1s with 1s
B 1s with 2s
C 1s with 2p
D 2s with 3p