1gm Ground Water

Ground Water
The central theme of hydrology is that water

circulates throughout the Earth through
different pathways and at different rates. The
most vivid image of this is in the evaporation
of water from the ocean, which forms clouds.
These clouds drift over the land and produce
rain. The rainwater flows into lakes, rivers, or
aquifers. The water in lakes, rivers, and
aquifers then either evaporates back to the
atmosphere or eventually flows back to the
ocean, completing a cycle. Water changes its
state of being several times throughout this
cycle.
The areas of research within hydrology
concern the movement of water between its
various states, or within a given state, or
simply quantifying the amounts in these states
in a given region. Parts of hydrology concern
developing methods for directly measuring
these flows or amounts of water, while others
concern modeling these processes either for
scientific knowledge or for making a
prediction in practical applications.
What is
Groundwater?
Groundwater is the
water which flows
underground
through spaces
between rocks,
known as aquifers.
Water enters the
ground as part of
the water cycle
(pictured below),
when rain seeps
into the ground.
Due to drought, the
use of ground
water has more
recently become a
topic of interest.
Ground water is water beneath Earth's surface, often pumped for drinking water Groundwater hydrology (hydrogeology)
considers quantifying groundwater flow and solute transport. Problems in describing the saturated zone include the
characterization of aquifers in terms of flow direction, groundwater pressure and, by inference, groundwater depth .
Measurements here can be made using a piezometer. Aquifers are also described in terms of hydraulic conductivity, storativity
and transmissivity. There are a number of geophysical methods for characterising aquifers. There are also problems in
characterising the vadose zone (unsaturated zone).
Aquifer Materials
Aquifers are a geological formation which can store and transmit groundwater. They are typically formed of
gravel, sand, sandstone, or fractured rock, like limestone saturated with water. These materials are permeable
because they have large connected spaces that allow water to flow through. Water in aquifers may be brought
to the surface naturally via a spring or discharge into a local creek, river or harbour via the water table.
Groundwater can be found almost everywhere but the depth of the water table may vary. During heavy rain the
water table may rise and during extended dry weather may fall. The speed at which the groundwater flows will
depend on the size of the spaces in the soil, sand or rocks and how well the spaces are connected. Groundwater
supplies are replenished, or recharged, by rain.
It is important to remember that aquifers not only store water, but also act as underground transportation
systems to carry the water down the catchment. If the aquifer becomes polluted at some point then the
polluted groundwater will be transported to a surface water body such as the creek, harbour or river or a well or
bore used for domestic or industrial purposes.
The Importance of Groundwater
The total volume of water on planet earth has remained the same for millions of years. Of all the water on earth, the oceans
contain more than 97%, approximately 2.5% is fresh water and the relatively small volume of water remaining is contained in
saline lakes.
Of the earth's fresh water, approximately 76% is located in ice caps and glaciers, 23.5% occurs as groundwater and 0.5% is
water found in rivers, lakes and reservoirs, as water vapour in the atmosphere and as water stored in animals, plants and in the
soil.
Less than 1% of global fresh water is available for human use and, of this 1%, over 97% of the available fresh water resources
are found as groundwater.
Groundwater is an important resource in the Sydney Region. It provides continued existence to various economic and social
activities in the region as well as being essential for the preservation of local waterways, estuarine and wetland ecosystems
which provide valuable natural habitats for flora and fauna. In some instances groundwater may also be used for domestic and
commercial uses
Ground Water
• Ground Water lies beneath the ground surface, filling pores in sediments and sedimentary rocks and fractures in
other rock types
• Represents 0.6% of the hydrosphere (35x the water in all lakes and rivers combined)
– Resupplied by slow infiltration of precipitation
– Generally cleaner than surface water
– Accessed by wells
Porosity and Permeability

Porosity - the percentage of rock or sediment that consists of voids or openings
Measurement of a rock’s ability to hold water
Loose sand has ~30-50% porosity
Compacted sandstone may have only 10-20% porosity
Permeability - the capacity of a rock to transmit fluid through pores and fractures
Interconnectedness of pore spaces
Most sandstones and conglomerates are porous and permeable
Granites, schists, unfractured limestones are impermeable
The Water Table
• Subsurface zone in which all rock
openings are filled with water is the
phreatic, or saturated zone
• Top of the saturated zone is the water
table
– Water level at surface of most lakes and
rivers corresponds to local water table
• Above the water table is an
unsaturated region called the vadose
zone
• A perched water table is above and
separated from main water table by an
unsaturated zone
– Commonly produced by thin lenses of
impermeable rock (e.g., shales or clays)
within permeable ones
Ground Water Movement
• Movement of ground water
through pores and fractures is
relatively slow (cms to
meters/day) compared to
flow
of water in surface streams
– Flow velocities in cavernous
limestones can be much higher
(kms/day)
• Flow velocity depends upon:
– Slope of the water table
– Permeability of the rock or
sediment
Aquifers and Aquitards
• Aquifer - body of saturated rock
or sediment through which
water can move easily
– Sandstone
– Conglomerate
– Well-jointed limestone
– Sand and gravel
– Highly fractured
volcanic rock
• Aquitard - rock/sediment that
retards ground water flow due to low
porosity and/or permeability
– Shale, clay, unfractured crystalline rocks
Aquifers- foothills
• Aquifer
- Forms in fractured igneous
rock (granitic)
- Porosity and permeability are
low
- Wells are difficult to
locate, yield is low
- Often limits development
Unconfined vs. Confined Aquifers
• Unconfined Aquifer
– Has a water table, and is only
partly filled with water
– Rapidly recharged by
precipitation infiltrating down to
the saturated zone
• Confined Aquifer
– Completely filled with water
under pressure (hydrostatic
head)
– Separated from surface by
impermeable confining
layer/aquitard
– Very slowly recharged
Wells
• Well - a deep hole dug or drilled
into the ground to obtain water
from an aquifer
– For wells in unconfined aquifers,
water level before pumping is the
water table
– Water table can be lowered by
pumping, a process known as
drawdown
– Water may rise to a level above
the top of a confined aquifer,
producing an artesian well
Springs
• Spring - a place where
water flows naturally
from rock or sediment
onto the ground surface
Ground Water Contamination
Infiltrating water may bring
contaminants down to the water table,
including (but not limited to):
– Pharmaceuticals
– Pesticides/herbicides
– Fertilizers
– Feed lots
– Mercury and gold mining
– Landfill pollutants
– Heavy metals
– Bacteria, viruses and parasites from sewage
– Industrial chemicals (PCBs, TCE)
– Acid mine drainage
– Radioactive waste
– Oil and gasoline
Ground Water Contamination
• Contaminated ground water

can be extremely difficult and
expensive to clean up
Assignment: due next
Wednesday
• Pick your favorite groundwater contaminant
– Write a 1 page (maximum) paper that describes the
following:
1) Name of the contaminant, chemical formula
2) How it affects people- when/where is it a problem to
the human body, what are the harmful effects?
3) Where it is found, how is it transported, how does it
get into the groundwater system?
4) What can be done to solve the problem?
Due date: beginning of class, next Wednesday
Balancing Withdrawal
and Recharge
• If ground water is withdrawn more
rapidly than it is recharged, the
water table will drop
– Dropping water table can lead to
ground subsidence
• surface of the ground drops as
buoyancy from ground water is
removed, allowing rock or sediment to
compact and sink
– Subsidence can crack foundations,
roads and pipelines
– Areas of extremely high ground water
pumping (such as for crop irrigation in
dry regions) have subsided 7-9 meters
Caves, Sinkholes, and Karst
• Caves - naturally-formed underground

chambers
– Acidic ground water dissolves limestone
along joints and bedding planes
• Caves near the surface may collapse
and produce sinkholes
• Rolling hills, disappearing streams,
and sinkholes are common in areas
with karst topography
Hot Water Underground
• Hot springs - springs in which the water

is warmer than human body temperature
– Ground water heated by nearby magma
bodies or circulation to unusually deep (and
warm) levels within the crust
– Hot water is less dense than cool water and
thus rises back to the surface on its own
• Geysers - hot springs that periodically
erupt hot water and steam
– Minerals often precipitate around geysers as
hot water cools rapidly in the air
Geothermal Energy
• Geothermal energy is produced using

natural steam or superheated water
– No CO2 or acid rain are produced (clean
energy source)
– Some toxic gases given off (e.g., sulfur
compounds)
– Can be used directly to heat buildings
– Superheated water can be very corrosive to
pipes and equipment
Streams and
Groundwater
• Gaining streams - receive water
from the saturated zone
– Gaining stream surface is local water
table
• Losing streams - lose water to the

saturated zone
– Stream beds lie above the water table
– Maximum infiltration occurs through
streambed, producing permanent
“mound” in the water table beneath dry
channel

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Ground Water

The central theme of hydrology is that water

Porosity and Permeability

• Contaminated ground water

• Caves - naturally-formed underground

• Hot springs - springs in which the water

• Geothermal energy is produced using

• Losing streams - lose water to the

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