Metal Forming

Mechanics and Metallurgy

Prof. : Donghyun Bae (Dept. of Materials Science & Engieering)

Office:B322 (2nd Engineering Bld.), Tel:5831,
e-mail:[email protected]

Objective:
Providing a fundamental and practical understanding of the forming processes for
metals in the context of materials science and engineering. With the sufficient
knowledge related to mechanics and metallurgy, the microstructure-formability
relationships for materials can be established.

Lecture, Presentation

Credit: Attendance:20%
Course Syllabus
Text book:
“Metal Forming”, 3rd edition by W. F. Hosford and R. M. Caddell, 1993

Additional Reading
“Mechanical Metallurgy”, by G. E. Dieter, 1988

1. Mechanics
Stress/strain, Plasticity, Yield criteria, Plastic instability, Work/Energy
2. Metallurgy
Work hardening, strain rate/temperature
3. Slab analysis/Deformation zone geometry
4. Formability
5. Sheet forming

Reading assignment in the text to be lectured

Automotive Body
Ram
Die

Cu can
Thermo
couple
Cu dummy
plug
Insulator

Furnace
 Review of stress/strain

1-D stress

Fn A
  Fn / A Normal stress

Ft A
  Ft / A Shear stress
 Type of Stress

Hydrostatic Shear
s
Force, F
A

s s
s
Shear stress
t = F/A
s
Normal stress q Shear strain
s = F/A g = tanq
= dl/lo
Normal and shear stress components
𝛿 𝐹𝑛 𝛿𝐹𝑡
𝜎≡ 𝜏≡
𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝐴
𝐹𝑦′ 𝐹
𝜎𝑦 ≡ ′ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃=𝜎 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝐴′ 𝐴
𝐹 𝐹
𝜏 𝑥 ≡ 𝑥 ′ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃=𝜎 𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
′
𝐴′ 𝐴

𝜎 𝑖𝑗 - i: area on which force acts

j: direction of force

Sign -
-
If sign(i)=sign(j), stress is positive
Otherwise, stress is negative
 Stress tensor

| |
𝜎 𝑥𝑥 𝜎 𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑧𝑥
𝜎 𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎 𝑥 𝑦 𝜎 𝑦𝑦 𝜎 𝑧𝑦
𝜎 𝑥𝑧 𝜎 𝑦𝑧 𝜎 𝑧𝑧

- Two identical subscripts () → a normal stress

- A differing pair ( shear stress

Mohr’s circle equations

- Principle stresses
: One set of axes (1, 2, 3) for which all shear stresses are zero in

| |
(1, 2, 3) coordination system.
𝜎 11 0 0
𝜎 𝑖𝑗 = 0 𝜎 22 0
- 0 0 𝜎 33
In (x, y, z)

| |
𝜎 𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑧𝑥
𝜎 𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎 𝑥 𝑦 𝜎 𝑦𝑦 𝜎 𝑧𝑦
𝜎 𝑥𝑧 𝜎 𝑦𝑧 𝜎 𝑧𝑧
Coordinate transformation

y
y’
θx’y x’
θx’x
θx’z x l xx '  cos  xx '
z

z’

 i j   liml jn mn
wherem m, nn = {x, y, z}
old
i, j = {x', y',z'}
new
 Principle stress
One set of axes (1,2,3) for which
all shear stresses are zero in (1,2,3) coordinate
system

 11 0 0 
 
 ij   0  22 0 
0 0  33 
 
In (x,y,z)

 xx  xy  xz  λ‘s will be principle stresses (eigenvalues)

 
 ij   yx  yy  yz  Directions(eigenvectors) associated with
 zx  zy  zz  λ‘s will be principle coordinates


to find  11 ,  22 ,  33

solve det[ ij  I ]  0
λ❑3 − 𝐼 1 λ2❑ − 𝐼 2 λ − 𝐼 3=0
++ = tr() = 3
: mean normal stress
+

+
det()
 det[ ij  I ]  0
λ’s will be principle stresses (eigenvalues)
Directions (eigenvalues) associated with λ’s will be principle coordi-
nates

3  I1 2  I 2   I 3  0
I1   xx   yy   zz  Tr ( )
 3 m mean normal stress

sm is not related to yielding

- pore metal
- very high strength materials

2 2 2
I 2  ( xy   yz   zx )   xx yy   xx zz   yy zz
2 2 2
I 3   xx yy zz  2 x y yz xz   xx yz   yy xz   zz xy
 det( )
Invariants: does not change for rotating the coordinate (components is changed)
For metal plasticity
Most useful quantities

1
 m  ( xx   yy   zz )
3
Maximum shear stress in material
 1 , 2 , 3
 3  1
1   2   3  max 
2
<shear deviator> dilates, distorts
 ij i j
 ij '   vol. change shape change
 i j   m i  j

Hydrostatic and deviator components of stress

  kk  x   y   z  1   2   3
m   
3 3 3
2 x   y   z
3
 xy  xz
1
2 y   z   x  ij   ij   ij kk
 ij   yx
3
 yz 3
2 z   x   y
 zx  zy
3
For example in the principal axes
2 1   2   3 2   1   2  1   3  2
 11        3   2 
3 3 2 2  3

 3  J1  2  J 2    J 3  0
J1  ( x   m )  ( y   m )  ( x   m )  0

J2 
1
6
 
 x   y 2   y   z 2   z   x 2  6  xy2   yz2   zx2 
J3  ?
 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎 𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎 𝑦
𝜎 ∅= + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ +𝜏 𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅
2 2
(𝜎 ¿ ¿ 𝑥 − 𝜎 𝑦 )
𝜏 ∅ =− 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅ +𝜏 𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ ¿
2

2 𝜏 𝑥𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 ∅=
𝜎 𝑥− 𝜎𝑦
- Using the values of sin2 and cos2,
1 1 1/ 2
𝜎 1 , 𝜎 2= (𝜎 𝑥 + 𝜎 𝑦 )± [(𝜎 𝑥 − 𝜎 𝑦 )2+ 4 𝜏 2𝑥𝑦 ]
2 2

- The values of are the two principal stresses in the x-y plane.
1
[ 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑦 ]
2 2 1 /2
𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝜎 − 𝜎 ) + 4 𝜏
2
Strain

Displacement of point Q

Displacement: Rigid body translation, rotation, deformation

Deformation of a solid
Dilatation: change in volume
Distortion: change in shape
Strain

1D
l0 l
A0 A

Engineering strain

l  l0 l
e 
l0 l0

If large strain, better to use ‘true strain’

l
dl l
   ln( )
l0
l l0
e for small strain (e = 1~2%)
Review of strain
Normal strain in 1D
(x,y,z) – Position of point P
(u,v,w)- Displacement of P u  u (x)
u
dx  dx  dx
L AB  AB x u
ex    
L AB dx x

u  ex x

Normal strains in 3D
u v w
strain (i,j) (eij) exx  e yy  ezz 
x y z
shear component: i ≠ j

Distortion
DD u
exy   Displacement tensor
DA y
u u u
BB v exx exy exz x y z
e yx  
AB x v v v
eij  e yx e yy e yz 
x y z
ezx ezy ezz
w w w
x y z

q Shear strain
g = tanq
= dl/lo
 Shear displacement = shear strain + rigid-body rotation
Pure shear Pure rotation Simple shear

shear component: i ≠ j
1 1
eij  (eij  e ji )  (eij  e ji ) 1 rel .displ . in z dir rel .displ . in x dir
2 2  xz  (  )
eij   ij   ij 2 length in x direction length in z direction
1 u w
 xz   zx  (  )
2 z x
1
 xz   xz
2
  ij   ji
symmetric

 ij   ji
antisymmetric

ui   ij x j   ij x j

Engineerin g shear strain ( )

  exy  e yx   xy   yx  2 xy
 ij  2 ij
not a tensor quantity
For an isotropic body, the direction of principal strains coincide with principal stress directions

3 principal strains
 3  I1 2  I 2  I 3  0 2( x   )  xy  xz l

3 invariants  xy 2( y   )  yz m  0
 xz  yz 2( z   ) n
I I   x   y   z  1   2   3

I 2   x y   y  z   z  x  1  xy   yz   xz
4
2 2 2

4 4

I 3   x y z  1  xy yz xz  1  x yz   y xz   z xy
2 2 2

3 principal strains principal shear strains
1 (l1 , m1 , n1 ) 1  2  2
 2 (l2 , m2 , n2 )  2  1   3
 3 (l3 , m3 , n3 )  3  1   2
 Total strain = volume strain + shape change strain
volume strain, D (dilatation)
only normal strains Unit volume : x, y , z

(1   x )(1   y )(1   z )dxdydz  dxdydz

  (1   x )(1   y )(1   z )  1
dxdydz
   x   y   z  1   2   3
Mean strain Shape change strain,  ij
(hydrostatic component of strain) (strain deviator)
2ε x   y   z
 x   y   z  kk  3
 xy  xz
m    x  m  xy  xz
2ε y   z   x
3 3 3  ij   yx  y   m  yz   yx  yz
3
 zx  zy  z   m 2ε z   x   y
 zx  zy
3
   
 ij   ij   m    ij   ij    ij
 3  3
Transformation of coordinates

m, n = {x, y, z} “old”
ei j   liml jnemn i, j = {x', y'. z'}
m m “new”
lαβ=direction cosine
other “strains”

ev  exx  e yy  ezz
v

v
1% = elastic strain
why do we care about elastic-
ity
elastic unloading leads to
- spring bank
- residual stresses
HW: Chap 1- 1,2,3 problems
 Uniaxial deformation For isotropic materials
 There are two independent
Elastic constants
y (1) E : young’s modulus
(2)  : poissons ratio

y

linear elastic
x
 xx z

Elastic stress-strain relations

 yy   zz  0
 xx  xx
 xx   yy   zz  
 xx ,  yy ,  zz  ? E E

for the metals,  0.3 in elastic range,

during plastic deformation,  0.5 (vol=constant)
for an isotropic solid, small elastic stress in 3D

Assumption: sx does not produce shear strains on the x, y, z plane

txy does not produce normal strains on the x, y, z plane

Normal strain
1
1

 x   x  ( y   z )  1   1  ( 2   3 )
E E
1 1

 y   y  ( x   z )
E
  2   2   ( 1   3 )
E
1 1

 z   z   ( x   y )
E
  3   3   ( 1   2 )
E
Shear strain G : shear modulus

 xy  G xy ,  xy  G xy ,  xy  G xy
 
1  
1   1   2   1      2  ,  3  0
E E 2
   E
G   
 21 2  (1   ) 2(1   )
E
V
 1   2   3  0
V

Hydrostatic strain K : bulk modulus

V 3
 1   2   3  (1  2 )  , ( 1   2   3   )
V E
 E
K m 
 3(1  2 )
 Fx
Elastic strain energy per unit vol.
dx

dW  Fx dx
dW Fx dx x
dw     x d x (per unit volume )
xA A x
 x  E x
 x x Fx
w
2
1
w   x x   y  y   z  z   xy xy   yz yz   zx zx 
2
1 1
w   11   2 2   3 3  w   ( ij ij )
2 2 ij
1 1

2 ij
 ij ij  [    m v ]
2
 Yield conditions
<perfectly plastic>

No hardening
Rate independent
No elasticity


0.2% offset


rate independent limit




below 0.3-0.4Tm in degrees K

above 0.4Tm




you can fit most of this behavior for limited temp. ranges
using a “power law”
n
 
   0  
 
 y

room temp. n ~ 100 / at high temp. n ~ 5