Chapter 2

Software Testing
ISTQB / ISEB Foundation Exam Practice

Testing in the Lifecycle

1 Principles 2 Lifecycle 3 Static testing

4 Dynamic test
5 Management 6 Tools
techniques
 Lifecycle

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Contents
Models for testing, economics of testing
High level test planning
Component Testing
Integration testing in the small
System testing (non-functional and functional)
Integration testing in the large
Acceptance testing
Maintenance testing
V-Model: test levels
Business Acceptance
Requirements Testing

Project Integration Testing

Specification in the Large

System System
Specification Testing

Design Integration Testing

Specification in the Small

Component
Code
Testing
V-Model: late test design
Tests
Business Acceptance
Requirements Testing
Tests
Project “We don’t have Integration Testing
Specification time to design in the Large
tests early”Tests
System System
Specification Testing
Tests
Design Integration Testing
Specification in the Small
Tests
Component
Code
Testing Design
Tests?
 V-Model: early test design
Tests Tests
Business Acceptance
Requirements Testing
Tests Tests
Project Integration Testing
Specification in the Large
Tests Tests
System System
Specification Testing
Tests Tests
Design Integration Testing
Specification in the Small
Tests Tests
Component
Design Code
Testing Run
Tests Tests
Early test design


test design finds faults

faults found early are cheaper to fix

most significant faults found first

faults prevented, not built in

no additional effort, re-schedule test design

changing requirements caused by test design

Early test design helps to build quality,

stops fault multiplication
Experience report: Phase 1

2 mo 2 mo
Phase 1: Plan
dev test
"has to go in"
but didn't work

Actual
fraught, lots of dev overtime

test 1st mo. users

Quality not
150 faults 50 faults happy
 Experience report: Phase 2

2 mo 662wks
mo
Phase
Phase1: Plan 22 mo
mo wks
Phase 2:
2: Plan
Plan dev test
dev
dev test
test "has totest:
go in"
acc
acc test: full
full
but didn't
week work
week (vs
(vs half
half day)
day)

Actual
Actual
Actual on
on time
time
fraught, lots of dev overtime
smooth,
smooth, not
not much
much for
for dev
dev to
to do
do

test 1st1st
mo. users
Quality
Quality
test
test 1st mo.
mo. not
Quality 150 faults 500 faults
happy
happy
happy
50
50 faults
faults 0 faults
faults users!
users!

Source: Simon Barlow & Alan Veitch, Scottish Widows, Feb 96

VV&T

Verification
• the process of evaluating a system or component to determine
whether the products of the given development phase satisfy
the conditions imposed at the start of that phase [BS 7925-1]

Validation
• determination of the correctness of the products of software
development with respect to the user needs and requirements
[BS 7925-1]

Testing
• the process of exercising software to verify that it satisfies
specified requirements and to detect faults
Verification, Validation and Testing

Validation

Testing
Any

Verification
V-model exercise
The V Model - Exercise
Build Assembly
VD Review VD
Assemblage Test

Build System
DS Review DS
System Test

Build Integration
FD Review FD
Components Test

Build Exceptions:
TD Review TD FUT
Units
Conversion Test
FOS: DN/Gldn
Code TUT
How would you test this spec?


A computer program plays chess with one
user. It displays the board and the pieces on
the screen. Moves are made by dragging
pieces.
“Testing is expensive”


Compared to what?

What is the cost of NOT testing, or of faults missed
that should have been found in test?
- Cost to fix faults escalates the later the fault is found
- Poor quality software costs more to use
• users take more time to understand what to do
• users make more mistakes in using it
• morale suffers
• => lower productivity

Do you know what it costs your organisation?
What do software faults cost?


Have you ever accidentally destroyed a PC?
- knocked it off your desk?
- poured coffee into the hard disc drive?
- dropped it out of a 2nd storey window?

How would you feel?

How much would it cost?
 Hypothetical Cost - 1
(Loaded Salary cost: £50/hr)
Fault Cost Developer User
- detect ( .5 hr) £25
- report ( .5 hr) £25
- receive & process (1 hr) £50
- assign & bkgnd (4 hrs) £200
- debug ( .5 hr) £25
- test fault fix ( .5 hr) £25
- regression test (8 hrs) £400

£700 £50
 Hypothetical Cost - 2

Fault Cost Developer User

£700 £50
- update doc'n, CM (2 hrs) £100
- update code library (1 hr) £50
- inform users (1 hr) £50
- admin(10% = 2 hrs) £100
Total (20 hrs) £1000
 Hypothetical Cost - 3
Fault Cost Developer User
£1000 £50
(suppose affects only 5 users)
- work x 2, 1 wk £4000
- fix data (1 day) £350
- pay for fix (3 days maint) £750
- regr test & sign off (2 days) £700
- update doc'n / inform (1 day) £350
- double check + 12% 5 wks £5000
- admin (+7.5%) £800
Totals £1000 £12000
 Cost of fixing faults

1000

100

10

Req Des Test Use

How expensive for you?


Do your own calculation
- calculate cost of testing
• people’s time, machines, tools
- calculate cost to fix faults found in testing
- calculate cost to fix faults missed by testing

Estimate if no data available
- your figures will be the best your company has!

(10 minutes)
 Lifecycle

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Contents
Models for testing, economics of testing
High level test planning
Component Testing
Integration testing in the small
System testing (non-functional and functional)
Integration testing in the large
Acceptance testing
Maintenance testing
 (Before planning for a set of tests)


set organisational test strategy

identify people to be involved (sponsors,
testers, QA, development, support, et al.)

examine the requirements or functional
specifications (test basis)

set up the test organisation and infrastructure

defining test deliverables & reporting
structure

See: Structured Testing, an introduction to TMap®, Pol & van Veenendaal, 1998
High level test planning


What is the purpose of a high level test plan?
- Who does it communicate to?
- Why is it a good idea to have one?

What information should be in a high level test
plan?
- What is your standard for contents of a test plan?
- Have you ever forgotten something important?
- What is not included in a test plan?
 Test Plan 1


1 Test Plan Identifier

2 Introduction
- software items and features to be tested
- references to project authorisation, project plan, QA
plan, CM plan, relevant policies & standards

3 Test items
- test items including version/revision level
- how transmitted (net, disc, CD, etc.)
- references to software documentation

Source: ANSI/IEEE Std 829-1998, Test Documentation

Test Plan 2


4 Features to be tested
- identify test design specification / techniques

5 Features not to be tested
- reasons for exclusion
Test Plan 3

6 Approach
- activities, techniques and tools
- detailed enough to estimate
- specify degree of comprehensiveness (e.g. coverage) and other
completion criteria (e.g. faults)
- identify constraints (environment, staff, deadlines)

7 Item Pass/Fail Criteria

8 Suspension criteria and resumption criteria
- for all or parts of testing activities
- which activities must be repeated on resumption
Test Plan 4


9 Test Deliverables
- Test plan
- Test design specification
- Test case specification
- Test procedure specification
- Test item transmittal reports
- Test logs
- Test incident reports
- Test summary reports
Test Plan 5


10 Testing tasks
- including inter-task dependencies & special skills

11 Environment
- physical, hardware, software, tools
- mode of usage, security, office space

12 Responsibilities
- to manage, design, prepare, execute, witness, check,
resolve issues, providing environment, providing the
software to test
Test Plan 6

13 Staffing and Training Needs

14 Schedule
- test milestones in project schedule
- item transmittal milestones
- additional test milestones (environment ready)
- what resources are needed when

15 Risks and Contingencies
- contingency plan for each identified risk

16 Approvals
- names and when approved
 Lifecycle

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Contents
Models for testing, economics of testing
High level test planning
Component Testing
Integration testing in the small
System testing (non-functional and functional)
Integration testing in the large
Acceptance testing
Maintenance testing
Component testing


lowest level

tested in isolation

most thorough look at detail
- error handling
- interfaces

usually done by programmer

also known as unit, module, program testing
 Component test strategy 1


specify test design techniques and rationale
- from Section 3 of the standard*

specify criteria for test completion and rationale
- from Section 4 of the standard

document the degree of independence for test
design
- component author, another person, from different
section, from different organisation, non-human

*Source: BS 7925-2, Software Component Testing Standard

Component test strategy 2


component integration and environment
- isolation, top-down, bottom-up, or mixture
- hardware and software

document test process and activities
- including inputs and outputs of each activity

affected activities are repeated after any fault fixes
or changes

project component test plan
- dependencies between component tests
Component Component
Test Strategy

Test Document
Project
Hierarchy Component
Test Plan

Component
Test Plan
Source: BS 7925-2,
Software Component
Testing Standard, Component
Annex A Test
Specification

Component
Test Report
Component test process
BEGIN

Component
Test Planning

Component
Test Specification

Component
Test Execution

Component
Test Recording

Checking for
Component END
Test Completion
Component test process
BEGIN Component test planning
- how the test strategy and
Component
Test Planning
project test plan apply to
the component under test
Component - any exceptions to the strategy
Test Specification - all software the component
will interact with (e.g. stubs
Component
Test Execution
and drivers

Component
Test Recording

Checking for
Component END
Test Completion
Component test process
BEGIN

Component Component test specification

Test Planning
- test cases are designed
Component using the test case design
Test Specification techniques specified in the
test plan (Section 3)
Component - Test case:
Test Execution
objective
Component initial state of component
Test Recording input
expected outcome
Checking for - test cases should be
Component END
Test Completion repeatable
Component test process
BEGIN

Component
Test Planning

Component
Test Specification
Component test execution
Component - each test case is executed
Test Execution - standard does not specify
whether executed manually
Component
Test Recording or using a test execution
tool
Checking for
Component END
Test Completion
Component test process
Component test recording
BEGIN
- identities & versions of
Component component, test specification
Test Planning - actual outcome recorded &
compared to expected outcome
Component - discrepancies logged
Test Specification
- repeat test activities to establish
Component removal of the discrepancy
Test Execution (fault in test or verify fix)
- record coverage levels achieved
Component for test completion criteria
Test Recording
specified in test plan
Checking for
Component Sufficient
END to show test
Test Completion activities carried out
Component test process
BEGIN

Component Checking for component

Test Planning
test completion
Component - check test records against
Test Specification specified test completion
criteria
Component - if not met, repeat test
Test Execution
activities
Component - may need to repeat test
Test Recording specification to design test
cases to meet completion
Checking for criteria (e.g. white box)
Component END
Test Completion
 Also a measurement
Test design techniques technique? = Yes
= No

“Black box” 
“White box”
- Equivalence partitioning - Statement testing
- Boundary value analysis - Branch / Decision testing
- State transition testing - Data flow testing
- Cause-effect graphing - Branch condition testing
- Syntax testing - Branch condition
- Random testing combination testing

How to specify other - Modified condition
techniques decision testing
- LCSAJ testing
 Lifecycle

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Contents
Models for testing, economics of testing
High level test planning
Component Testing
Integration testing in the small
System testing (non-functional and functional)
Integration testing in the large
Acceptance testing
Maintenance testing
Integration testing
in the small

more than one (tested) component

communication between components

what the set can perform that is not possible
individually

non-functional aspects if possible

integration strategy: big-bang vs incremental
(top-down, bottom-up, functional)

done by designers, analysts, or
independent testers
Big-Bang Integration


In theory:
- if we have already tested components why not just
combine them all at once? Wouldn’t this save time?
- (based on false assumption of no faults)

In practice:
- takes longer to locate and fix faults
- re-testing after fixes more extensive
- end result? takes more time
Incremental Integration


Baseline 0: tested component

Baseline 1: two components

Baseline 2: three components, etc.

Advantages:
- easier fault location and fix
- easier recovery from disaster / problems
- interfaces should have been tested in component tests,
but ..
- add to tested baseline
Top-Down Integration


Baselines:
- baseline 0: component a a
- baseline 1: a + b
- baseline 2: a + b + c b c
- baseline 3: a + b + c + d
- etc.
d e f g

Need to call to lower
level components not
yet integrated h i j k l m

Stubs: simulate missing
components n o
Stubs


Stub (Baan: dummy sessions) replaces a called
component for integration testing

Keep it Simple
- print/display name (I have been called)
- reply to calling module (single value)
- computed reply (variety of values)
- prompt for reply from tester
- search list of replies
- provide timing delay
Pros & cons of top-down approach


Advantages:
- critical control structure tested first and most often
- can demonstrate system early (show working menus)

Disadvantages:
- needs stubs
- detail left until last
- may be difficult to "see" detailed output (but should have
been tested in component test)
- may look more finished than it is
Bottom-up Integration


Baselines: a
- baseline 0: component n
- baseline 1: n + i b c
- baseline 2: n + i + o
- baseline 3: n + i + o + d d e f g
- etc.

Needs drivers to call h i j k l m
the baseline configuration

Also needs stubs n o
for some baselines
Drivers


Driver (Baan: dummy sessions): test harness:
scaffolding

specially written or general purpose
(commercial tools)
- invoke baseline
- send any data baseline expects
- receive any data baseline produces (print)

each baseline has different requirements from
the test driving software
Pros & cons of bottom-up approach

Advantages:
- lowest levels tested first and most thoroughly (but should have
been tested in unit testing)
- good for testing interfaces to external environment (hardware,
network)
- visibility of detail

Disadvantages
- no working system until last baseline
- needs both drivers and stubs
- major control problems found last
Minimum Capability Integration
(also called Functional)

Baselines: a
- baseline 0: component a
- baseline 1: a + b b c
- baseline 2: a + b + d
- baseline 3: a + b + d + i d e f g
- etc.
h i j k l m

Needs stubs

Shouldn't need drivers
n o
(if top-down)
Pros & cons of Minimum Capability


Advantages:
- control level tested first and most often
- visibility of detail
- real working partial system earliest

Disadvantages
- needs stubs
Thread Integration
(also called functional)

order of processing some event
determines integration order a

interrupt, user transaction
b c

minimum capability in time

advantages:
d e f g
- critical processing first
- early warning of
performance problems
h i j k l m

disadvantages:
- may need complex drivers and stubs n o
Integration Guidelines


minimise support software needed

integrate each component only once

each baseline should produce an easily
verifiable result

integrate small numbers of components at
once
- one at a time for critical or fault-prone components
- combine simple related components
Integration Planning


integration should be planned in the
architectural design phase

the integration order then determines the
build order
- components completed in time for their baseline
- component development and integration testing can
be done in parallel - saves time
 Lifecycle

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Contents
Models for testing, economics of testing
High level test planning
Component Testing
Integration testing in the small
System testing (non-functional and functional)
Integration testing in the large
Acceptance testing
Maintenance testing
System testing

last integration step

functional
- functional requirements and requirements-based testing
- business process-based testing

non-functional
- as important as functional requirements
- often poorly specified
- must be tested

often done by independent test group
Functional system testing


Functional requirements
- a requirement that specifies a function that a system
or system component must perform (ANSI/IEEE
Std 729-1983, Software Engineering Terminology)

Functional specification
- the document that describes in detail the
characteristics of the product with regard to its
intended capability (BS 4778 Part 2, BS 7925-1)
Requirements-based testing


Uses specification of requirements as the
basis for identifying tests
- table of contents of the requirements spec provides
an initial test inventory of test conditions
- for each section / paragraph / topic / functional area,
• risk analysis to identify most important / critical
• decide how deeply to test each functional area
Business process-based testing

Expected user profiles
- what will be used most often?
- what is critical to the business?

Business scenarios
- typical business transactions (birth to death)

Use cases
- prepared cases based on real situations
Non-functional system testing


different types of non-functional system tests:
- usability - configuration / installation
- security - reliability / qualities
- documentation - back-up / recovery
- storage - performance, load, stress
- volume
Performance Tests

Timing Tests
- response and service times
- database back-up times

Capacity & Volume Tests
- maximum amount or processing rate
- number of records on the system
- graceful degradation

Endurance Tests (24-hr operation?)
- robustness of the system
- memory allocation
Multi-User Tests

Concurrency Tests
- small numbers, large benefits
- detect record locking problems

Load Tests
- the measurement of system behaviour under realistic
multi-user load

Stress Tests
- go beyond limits for the system - know what will happen
- particular relevance for e-commerce

Source: Sue Atkins, Magic Performance Management

Usability Tests


messages tailored and meaningful to (real)
users?

coherent and consistent interface?

sufficient redundancy of critical information?

within the "human envelope"? (7±2 choices)

feedback (wait messages)?

clear mappings (how to escape)?

Who should design / perform these tests?

Security Tests


passwords

encryption

hardware permission devices

levels of access to information

authorisation

covert channels

physical security
Configuration and Installation


Configuration Tests
- different hardware or software environment
- configuration of the system itself
- upgrade paths - may conflict

Installation Tests
- distribution (CD, network, etc.) and timings
- physical aspects: electromagnetic fields, heat, humidity,
motion, chemicals, power supplies
- uninstall (removing installation)
Reliability / Qualities


Reliability
- "system will be reliable" - how to test this?
- "2 failures per year over ten years"
- Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF)
- reliability growth models

Other Qualities
- maintainability, portability, adaptability, etc.
Back-up and Recovery


Back-ups
- computer functions
- manual procedures (where are tapes stored)

Recovery
- real test of back-up
- manual procedures unfamiliar
- should be regularly rehearsed
- documentation should be detailed, clear and thorough
Documentation Testing


Documentation review
- check for accuracy against other documents
- gain consensus about content
- documentation exists, in right format

Documentation tests
- is it usable? does it work?
- user manual
- maintenance documentation
 Lifecycle

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Contents
Models for testing, economics of testing
High level test planning
Component Testing
Integration testing in the small
System testing (non-functional and functional)
Integration testing in the large
Acceptance testing
Maintenance testing
Integration testing in the large


Tests the completed system working in
conjunction with other systems, e.g.
- LAN / WAN, communications middleware
- other internal systems (billing, stock, personnel,
overnight batch, branch offices, other countries)
- external systems (stock exchange, news, suppliers)
- intranet, internet / www
- 3rd party packages
- electronic data interchange (EDI)
Approach


Identify risks
- which areas missing or malfunctioning would be most
critical - test them first

“Divide and conquer”
- test the outside first (at the interface to your system, e.g. test
a package on its own)
- test the connections one at a time first
(your system and one other)
- combine incrementally - safer than “big bang”
(non-incremental)
Planning considerations


resources
- identify the resources that will be needed
(e.g. networks)

co-operation
- plan co-operation with other organisations
(e.g. suppliers, technical support team)

development plan
- integration (in the large) test plan could influence
development plan (e.g. conversion software needed early on
to exchange data formats)
 Lifecycle

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Contents
Models for testing, economics of testing
High level test planning
Component Testing
Integration testing in the small
System testing (non-functional and functional)
Integration testing in the large
Acceptance testing
Maintenance testing
User acceptance testing


Final stage of validation
- customer (user) should perform or be closely involved
- customer can perform any test they wish, usually
based on their business processes
- final user sign-off

Approach
- mixture of scripted and unscripted testing
- ‘Model Office’ concept sometimes used
Why customer / user involvement


Users know:
- what really happens in business situations
- complexity of business relationships
- how users would do their work using the system
- variants to standard tasks (e.g. country-specific)
- examples of real cases
- how to identify sensible work-arounds

Benefit: detailed understanding of the new system

User Acceptance testing
Acceptance testing
distributed over
this line

80% of function
by 20% of code
20% of function
by 80% of code

System testing
distributed over
this line
Contract acceptance testing


Contract to supply a software system
- agreed at contract definition stage
- acceptance criteria defined and agreed
- may not have kept up to date with changes

Contract acceptance testing is against the
contract and any documented agreed changes
- not what the users wish they had asked for!
- this system, not wish system
Alpha and Beta tests: similarities


Testing by [potential] customers or representatives of
your market
- not suitable for bespoke software

When software is stable

Use the product in a realistic way in its operational
environment

Give comments back on the product
- faults found
- how the product meets their expectations
- improvement / enhancement suggestions?
Alpha and Beta tests: differences


Alpha testing
- simulated or actual operational testing at an in-
house site not otherwise involved with the software
developers (i.e. developers’ site)

Beta testing

operational testing at a site not otherwise involved
with the software developers (i.e. testers’ site,
their own location)
Acceptance testing motto

If you don't have patience to test the system

the system will surely test your patience

 Lifecycle

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Contents
Models for testing, economics of testing
High level test planning
Component Testing
Integration testing in the small
System testing (non-functional and functional)
Integration testing in the large
Acceptance testing
Maintenance testing
Maintenance testing


Testing to preserve quality:
- different sequence
• development testing executed bottom-up
• maintenance testing executed top-down
• different test data (live profile)
- breadth tests to establish overall confidence
- depth tests to investigate changes and critical areas
- predominantly regression testing
What to test in maintenance testing


Test any new or changed code

Impact analysis
- what could this change have an impact on?
- how important is a fault in the impacted area?
- test what has been affected, but how much?
• most important affected areas?
• areas most likely to be affected?
• whole system?

The answer: “It depends”
Poor or missing specifications


Consider what the system should do
- talk with users

Document your assumptions
- ensure other people have the opportunity to review them

Improve the current situation
- document what you do know and find out

Track cost of working with poor specifications
- to make business case for better specifications
What should the system do?


Alternatives
- the way the system works now must be right (except
for the specific change) - use existing system as the
baseline for regression tests
- look in user manuals or guides (if they exist)
- ask the experts - the current users

Without a specification, you cannot really test,
only explore. You can validate, but not verify.
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Summary: Key Points

V-model shows test levels, early test design
High level test planning
Component testing using the standard
Integration testing in the small: strategies
System testing (non-functional and functional)
Integration testing in the large
Acceptance testing: user responsibility
Maintenance testing to preserve quality