Signals and Systems

Unit-I
Types of Signals:
A signal is a description of how one parameter varies with another
parameter. It is a function that conveys information about a
phenomenon.
• Signals are classified into the following categories:
• Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals
• Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals
• Even and Odd Signals
• Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
• Energy and Power Signals
• Real and Imaginary Signals
Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals

A signal is said to be continuous

when it is defined for all instants
of time.
             
A signal is said to be discrete
when it is defined at only discrete
instants of time.
             
Deterministic and Non-deterministic
Signals

A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no

uncertainty with respect to its value at any instant of
time. Or, signals which can be defined exactly by a
mathematical formula are known as deterministic
signals.
                 
A signal is said to be non-deterministic if there is
uncertainty with respect to its value at some instant
of time. Non-deterministic signals are random in
nature hence they are called random signals.
Random signals cannot be described by a
mathematical equation. They are modelled in
probabilistic terms.
          
Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals

• A periodic signal is one that repeats the sequence

of values exactly after a fixed length of time,
known as the period. Examples of periodic signals
include the sinusoidal signals and periodically
repeated non-sinusoidal signals, such as the
rectangular pulse sequences used in radar.
                 
• Non-periodic signals (also known as aperiodic
signals), unlike periodic signals, do not have just
one frequency. For example, a speech signal
ranges from around 100 Hz to a few thousand Hz
(for telephone-quality speech, a range of 300 Hz to
3400 Hz is often assumed).

Condition for periodicity

x(n+N) = x(n)          
Even and Odd Signals

• A signal is said to be even when it

satisfies the condition x(t) = x(-t).
• A signal is said to be odd when it satisfies
the condition x(t) = -x(-t)
Energy and Power Signals
• A signal is said to be Energy signal if it has finite energy and zero power.
0 < E < ∞ and P = 0 where E is energy and P is power.
• A signal is said to be Power signal if it has finite power and infinite energy.
0 < P < ∞ and E = ∞
However, if the signal does not satisfy any of the above two conditions,
then it is neither an energy signal nor a power signal.
• Every periodic signal is a power signal, but every power signal need not to
be periodic.
• Every energy signal is non periodic, but every non periodic signal need
not to be energy signal.
Real and Complex Signals

• A signal is a real signal if its value is a real number and complex

if its value is complex number.
Example: ejw0t = cosw0t +j sinw0t
Here cos is real function and sin is complex function.
Exponential signal
The exponential: The “exponential”
signal literally represents an
exponentially increasing or falling
series: 
Continuous time: s(t)=e^αt.
Note that negative α values result in
a shrinking signal, whereas positive
values result in a growing signal.
Sinusoidal Signal
A sine wave or sinusoid is any of certain mathematical curves
that describe a smooth periodic oscillation. A sine wave is a
continuous wave. It is named after the function sine
Sinusoidal Signals are periodic functions which are based on
the sine or cosine function from trigonometry. • The general form
of a Sinusoidal Signal. x(t)=A cos(ω o. t +ϕ)
Unit Impulse Signal
The discrete-time unit impulse signal is denoted by δ(n). The
discrete-time signal is also called unit sample sequence, whose
value is zero everywhere except at zero, and whose integral over
the entire real line is equal to one.
Unit Step Signal
• The step signal or step function is that type of standard signal
which exists only for positive time and it is zero for negative
time. In other words, a signal x(t) is said to be step signal if and
only if it exists for t > 0 and zero for t < 0. The step signal is an
important signal used for analysis of many systems.
• If a step signal has unity magnitude, then it is known as unit
step signal or unit step function. It is denoted by u(t).
u(t)=1 for t ≥ 0
0fort<0
Transformation of signals
The are many ways of transforming a signal into another. For instance,
we can scale it, shift it in time, differentiate it, or perform a
combination of these actions.
Time scaling
Time scaling compresses or dilates a signal by multiplying
the time variable by some quantity. If that quantity is greater
than one, the signal becomes narrower and the operation is
called compression, while if the quantity is less than one, the
signal becomes wider and is called dilation.
Time Shifting
Time shifting is, as the name suggests, the shifting of a signal in
time. This is done by adding or subtracting a quantity of the shift
to the time variable in the function. Subtracting a fixed positive
quantity from the time variable will shift the signal to the right
(delay) by the subtracted quantity, while adding a fixed positive
amount to the time variable will shift the signal to the left
(advance) by the added quantity.
Problems on energy and power signals

1. Find the energy of the above diagram.

2. If x(t) signal is having energy E then calculate
the energy of x(2t).
Solution:
System
A system is any process that produces an output signal in
response to an input signal.
Systems are classified into the following categories:
• Linear and Non-linear Systems
• Time Variant and Time Invariant Systems
• Static and Dynamic Systems
• Causal and Non-causal Systems
• Stable and Unstable Systems
linear and Non-linear Systems

A system is said to be linear when it satisfies superposition and

homogenate principles. Consider two systems with inputs as
x1(t), x2(t), and outputs as y1(t), y2(t) respectively. Then, according
to the superposition and homogenate principles,
T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = a1 T[x1(t)] + a2 T[x2(t)]
T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t)
From the above expression, is clear that response of overall
system is equal to response of individual system.
Example:
Time Variant and Time Invariant Systems

A system is said to be time variant if its input and output

characteristics vary with time.
Otherwise, the system is considered as time invariant.
The condition for time invariant system is:
y (n , t) = y(n-t)
Where y(n, t) is delay the input by t sample and y(n-t) is
replace n by n-t
The condition for time variant system is:
y (n , t) ≠≠ y(n-t)
Where y (n , t) = T[x(n-t)] = input change
y (n-t) = output change
Example:
Static and Dynamic Systems

• Static system is memory-less whereas dynamic system is a memory

system.
• Example 1: y(t) = 2 x(t)
• For present value t=0, the system output is y(0) = 2x(0). Here, the output
is only dependent upon present input. Hence the system is memory less
or static.
• Example 2: y(t) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3)
• For present value t=0, the system output is y(0) = 2x(0) + 3x(-3).
• Here x(-3) is past value for the present input for which the system requires
memory to get this output. Hence, the system is a dynamic system.
Causal and Non-Causal Systems

• A system is said to be causal if its output depends upon present and past
inputs, and does not depend upon future input.
• For non causal system, the output depends upon future inputs also.
• Example 1: y(n) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3)
• For present value t=1, the system output is y(1) = 2x(1) + 3x(-2).
• Here, the system output only depends upon present and past inputs.
Hence, the system is causal.
• Example 2: y(n) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3) + 6x(t + 3)
• For present value t=1, the system output is y(1) = 2x(1) + 3x(-2) + 6x(4)
Here, the system output depends upon future input. Hence the system is
non-causal system.
Stable and Unstable Systems
• The system is said to be stable only when the output is
bounded for bounded input. For a bounded input, if the output is
unbounded in the system then it is said to be unstable.
• Note: For a bounded signal, amplitude is finite.
How to check the stability
Replace x(n) by δ(n) and replace y(n) by h(n) then check
∑h(n) < ∞ if this condition satisfies then system is stable
otherwise unstable.
Example:
Fourier Series
In mathematics, a Fourier series is a periodic
function composed of harmonically
related sinusoids combined by a weighted
summation. With appropriate weights, one cycle
(or period) of the summation can be made to
approximate an arbitrary function in that interval (or
the entire function if it too is periodic). As such, the
summation is a synthesis of another function. The
process of deriving weights that describe a given
function is a form of Fourier analysis. 
 Dirichlet’s Condition
The Dirichlet conditions are sufficient conditions for a real
valued, periodic function f to be equal to the sum of its Fourier
series at each point where f is continuous.
• f(t)must be absolutely integrable over a period. 
• f(t) must be of bounded variation in any given bounded interval. 
• f(t)must have a finite number of discontinuities in any given
bounded interval, and the discontinuities cannot be infinite.
Numerical: