Graphs

Chapter 10

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter Summary
Graphs and Graph Models
Graph Terminology and Special Types of Graphs
Representing Graphs and Graph Isomorphism
Connectivity
Euler and Hamiltonian Graphs
Shortest-Path Problems (not currently included in
overheads)
Planar Graphs (not currently included in overheads)
Graph Coloring (not currently included in overheads)
Graphs and Graph Models
Section 10.1
Section Summary
Introduction to Graphs
Graph Taxonomy
Graph Models
Graphs
Definition: A graph G = (V, E) consists of a nonempty set V of vertices (or nodes) and a set E of
edges. Each edge has either one or two vertices associated with it, called its endpoints. An edge is
said to connect its endpoints.

Example: a b
This is a graph
with four
vertices and five
edges.
d c

Remarks:
 The graphs we study here are unrelated to graphs of functions studied in Chapter 2.
 We have a lot of freedom when we draw a picture of a graph. All that matters is the connections made by the edges, not the particular
geometry depicted. For example, the lengths of edges, whether edges cross, how vertices are depicted, and so on, do not matter
 A graph with an infinite vertex set is called an infinite graph. A graph with a finite vertex set is called a finite graph. We (following the
text) restrict our attention to finite graphs.
Some Terminology
 In a simple graph each edge connects two different vertices and no two
edges connect the same pair of vertices.
 Multigraphs may have multiple edges connecting the same two
vertices. When m different edges connect the vertices u and v, we say
that {u,v} is an edge of multiplicity m.
 An edge that connects a vertex to itself is called a loop.
 A pseudograph may include loops, as well as multiple edges connecting
the same pair of vertices.

Example: a b Remark: There is no standard

This pseudograph terminology for graph theory. So, it is
has both multiple crucial that you understand the
edges and a loop. terminology being used whenever you
read material about graphs.
c
Directed Graphs
Definition: An directed graph (or digraph) G = (V, E)
consists of a nonempty set V of vertices (or nodes) and
a set E of directed edges (or arcs). Each edge is
associated with an ordered pair of vertices. The
directed edge associated with the ordered pair (u,v) is
said to start at u and end at v.
Remark:
Graphs where the end points of an edge are not ordered
are said to be undirected graphs.
Some Terminology (continued)
 A simple directed graph has no loops and no multiple edges.

a b
Example:
This is a directed graph with
three vertices and four edges.
c
 A directed multigraph may have multiple directed edges. When there
are m directed edges from the vertex u to the vertex v, we say that
(u,v) is an edge of multiplicity m.

Example:
a b
In this directed multigraph the
multiplicity of (a,b) is 1 and the
multiplicity of (b,c) is 2.
c
Graph Models:
Computer Networks
When we build a graph model, we use the appropriate type of graph to
capture the important features of the application.
We illustrate this process using graph models of different types of
computer networks. In all these graph models, the vertices represent
data centers and the edges represent communication links.
 To model a computer network where we are only concerned whether
two data centers are connected by a communications link, we use a
simple graph. This is the appropriate type of graph when we only care
whether two data centers are directly linked (and not how many links
there may be) and all communications links work in both directions.
Graph Models:
Computer Networks (continued)
• To model a computer network
where we care about the number
of links between data centers, we
use a multigraph.

• To model a computer network

with diagnostic links at data
centers, we use a pseudograph,
as loops are needed.

• To model a network with multiple one-

way links, we use a directed multigraph.
Note that we could use a directed graph
without multiple edges if we only care
whether there is at least one link from a
data center to another data center.
Graph Terminology: Summary
To understand the structure of a graph and to build a graph model,
we ask these questions:
• Are the edges of the graph undirected or directed (or both)?
• If the edges are undirected, are multiple edges present that connect
the same pair of vertices? If the edges are directed, are multiple
directed edges present?
• Are loops present?
Other Applications of Graphs
We will illustrate how graph theory can be used in models
of:
Social networks
Communications networks
Information networks
Software design
Transportation networks
Biological networks
It’s a challenge to find a subject to which graph theory has
not yet been applied. Can you find an area without
applications of graph theory?
Graph Models: Social Networks

Graphs can be used to model social structures based on different kinds of
relationships between people or groups.

In a social network, vertices represent individuals or organizations and edges
represent relationships between them.

Useful graph models of social networks include:
friendship graphs - undirected graphs where two people are connected if
they are friends (in the real world, on Facebook, or in a particular virtual
world, and so on.)
collaboration graphs - undirected graphs where two people are connected if
they collaborate in a specific way
influence graphs - directed graphs where there is an edge from one person
to another if the first person can influence the second person
Graph Models: Social Networks (continued)
Example: A friendship
graph where two people
are connected if they are
Facebook friends.

Example: An
influence graph

Next Slide: Collaboration Graphs

Examples of Collaboration Graphs
The Hollywood graph models the collaboration of actors in films.
We represent actors by vertices and we connect two vertices if the
actors they represent have appeared in the same movie.
We will study the Hollywood Graph in Section 10.4 when we discuss
Kevin Bacon numbers.
An academic collaboration graph models the collaboration of
researchers who have jointly written a paper in a particular subject.
 We represent researchers in a particular academic discipline using
vertices.
We connect the vertices representing two researchers in this discipline
if they are coauthors of a paper.
We will study the academic collaboration graph for mathematicians
when we discuss Erdős numbers in Section 10.4.
Applications to Information Networks
Graphs can be used to model different types of networks that link
different types of information.
In a web graph, web pages are represented by vertices and links are
represented by directed edges.
 A web graph models the web at a particular time.
 We will explain how the web graph is used by search engines in
Section 11.4.
In a citation network:
 Research papers in a particular discipline are represented by vertices.
When a paper cites a second paper as a reference, there is an edge
from the vertex representing this paper to the vertex representing the
second paper.
Transportation Graphs
Graph models are extensively used in the study of
transportation networks.
Airline networks can be modeled using directed multigraphs
where
airports are represented by vertices
each flight is represented by a directed edge from the vertex
representing the departure airport to the vertex representing the
destination airport
Road networks can be modeled using graphs where
vertices represent intersections and edges represent roads.
undirected edges represent two-way roads and directed edges
represent one-way roads.
Software Design Applications
Graph models are extensively used in software design. We will introduce two such
models here; one representing the dependency between the modules of a
software application and the other representing restrictions in the execution of
statements in computer programs.
When a top-down approach is used to design software, the system is divided into
modules, each performing a specific task.
We use a module dependency graph to represent the dependency between these
modules. These dependencies need to be understood before coding can be done.
In a module dependency graph vertices represent software modules and there is an
edge from one module to another if the second module depends on the first.

Example: The dependencies between the

seven modules in the design of a web
browser are represented by this module
dependency graph.
Software Design Applications (continued)
We can use a directed graph called a precedence graph to represent which
statements must have already been executed before we execute each
statement.
 Vertices represent statements in a computer program
There is a directed edge from a vertex to a second vertex if the second vertex
cannot be executed before the first

Example: This precedence graph

shows which statements must
already have been executed
before we can execute each of
the six statements in the
program.
Biological Applications
Graph models are used extensively in many areas of the biological
science. We will describe two such models, one to ecology and
the other to molecular biology.
Niche overlap graphs model competition between species in an
ecosystem
Vertices represent species and an edge connects two vertices when
they represent species who compete for food resources.

Example: This is the

niche overlap graph for
a forest ecosystem
with nine species.
Biological Applications (continued)
We can model the interaction of proteins in a cell using a protein interaction
network.
In a protein interaction graph, vertices represent proteins and vertices are
connected by an edge if the proteins they represent interact.
Protein interaction graphs can be huge and can contain more than 100,000
vertices, each representing a different protein, and more than 1,000,000 edges,
each representing an interaction between proteins
Protein interaction graphs are often split into smaller graphs, called modules,
which represent the interactions between proteins involved in a particular
function.
Example: This is a module of
the protein interaction graph of
proteins that degrade RNA in a
human cell.
Graph Terminology and
Special Types of Graphs
Section 10.2
Section Summary
Basic Terminology
Some Special Types of Graphs
Bipartite Graphs
Bipartite Graphs and Matchings (not currently
included in overheads)
Some Applications of Special Types of Graphs (not
currently included in overheads)
New Graphs from Old
Basic Terminology
Definition 1. Two vertices u, v in an undirected graph G are called
adjacent (or neighbors) in G if there is an edge e between u and v. Such
an edge e is called incident with the vertices u and v and e is said to
connect u and v.

Definition 2. The set of all neighbors of a vertex v of G = (V, E), denoted

by N(v), is called the neighborhood of v. If A is a subset of V, we denote by
N(A) the set of all vertices in G that are adjacent to at least one vertex in
A. So,

Definition 3. The degree of a vertex in a undirected graph is the number

of edges incident with it, except that a loop at a vertex contributes two to
the degree of that vertex. The degree of the vertex v is denoted by deg(v).
Degrees and Neighborhoods of Vertices
Example: What are the degrees and neighborhoods of the vertices in the
graphs G and H?

Solution:
G: deg(a) = 2, deg(b) = deg(c) = deg(f ) = 4, deg(d ) = 1,
deg(e) = 3, deg(g) = 0.
N(a) = {b, f }, N(b) = {a, c, e, f }, N(c) = {b, d, e, f }, N(d) = {c},
N(e) = {b, c , f }, N(f) = {a, b, c, e}, N(g) =  .
H: deg(a) = 4, deg(b) = deg(e) = 6, deg(c) = 1, deg(d) = 5.
N(a) = {b, d, e}, N(b) = {a, b, c, d, e}, N(c) = {b},
N(d) = {a, b, e}, N(e) = {a, b ,d}.
Degrees of Vertices
Theorem 1 (Handshaking Theorem): If G = (V,E) is an undirected
graph with m edges, then

Proof:
Each edge contributes twice to the degree count of all vertices. Hence,
both the left-hand and right-hand sides of this equation equal twice
the number of edges.

Think about the graph where vertices represent the people at a party and
an edge connects two people who have shaken hands.
Handshaking Theorem
We now give two examples illustrating the usefulness of the
handshaking theorem.

Example: How many edges are there in a graph with 10 vertices of

degree six?
Solution: Because the sum of the degrees of the vertices is
6  10 = 60, the handshaking theorem tells us that 2m = 60.
So the number of edges m = 30.

Example: If a graph has 5 vertices, can each vertex have degree 3?

Solution: This is not possible by the handshaking thorem, because
the sum of the degrees of the vertices 3  5 = 15 is odd.
 Degree of Vertices (continued)
Theorem 2: An undirected graph has an even number of
vertices of odd degree.
Proof: Let V1 be the vertices of even degree and V2 be the
vertices of odd degree in an undirected graph G = (V, E) with
m edges. Then
even

This sum must be even because 2m

must be is even and the sum of the degrees
even since of the vertices of even degrees is
deg(v) is also even. Because this is the sum of
even for the degrees of all vertices of odd
each v ∈ V1 degree in the graph, there must be
an even number of such vertices.
Directed Graphs
Recall the definition of a directed graph.

Definition: An directed graph G = (V, E) consists of V, a

nonempty set of vertices (or nodes), and E, a set of
directed edges or arcs. Each edge is an ordered pair of
vertices. The directed edge (u,v) is said to start at u and
end at v.
Definition: Let (u,v) be an edge in G. Then u is the
initial vertex of this edge and is adjacent to v and v is the
terminal (or end) vertex of this edge and is adjacent from
u. The initial and terminal vertices of a loop are the same.
Directed Graphs (continued)
Definition: The in-degree of a vertex v, denoted
deg−(v), is the number of edges which terminate at v.
The out-degree of v, denoted deg+(v), is the number of
edges with v as their initial vertex. Note that a loop at a
vertex contributes 1 to both the in-degree and the out-
degree of the vertex.
Example: In the graph G we have
deg−(a) = 2, deg−(b) = 2, deg−(c) = 3, deg−(d) = 2,
deg−(e) = 3, deg−(f) = 0.

deg+(a) = 4, deg+(b) = 1, deg+(c) = 2, deg+(d) = 2,

deg+ (e) = 3, deg+(f) = 0.
Directed Graphs (continued)
Theorem 3: Let G = (V, E) be a graph with directed
edges. Then:

Proof: The first sum counts the number of outgoing

edges over all vertices and the second sum counts the
number of incoming edges over all vertices. It follows
that both sums equal the number of edges in the graph.
Special Types of Simple Graphs: Complete
Graphs
A complete graph on n vertices, denoted by Kn, is the
simple graph that contains exactly one edge between
each pair of distinct vertices.
Special Types of Simple Graphs: Cycles and
Wheels
A cycle Cn for n ≥ 3 consists of n vertices v1, v2 ,⋯ , vn,
and edges {v1, v2}, {v2, v3} ,⋯ , {vn-1, vn}, {vn, v1}.

A wheel Wn is obtained by adding an additional vertex

to a cycle Cn for n ≥ 3 and connecting this new vertex
to each of the n vertices in Cn by new edges.
Special Types of Simple Graphs: n-Cubes
An n-dimensional hypercube, or n-cube, Qn, is a graph
with 2n vertices representing all bit strings of length n,
where there is an edge between two vertices that differ
in exactly one bit position.
Special Types of Graphs and Computer
Network Architecture
Various special graphs play an important role in the design of computer networks.

Some local area networks use a star topology, which is a complete bipartite graph K1,n ,as shown in (a).
All devices are connected to a central control device.
Other local networks are based on a ring topology, where each device is connected to exactly two
others using Cn ,as illustrated in (b). Messages may be sent around the ring.
Others, as illustrated in (c), use a Wn – based topology, combining the features of a star topology and a
ring topology.
Various special graphs also play a role in parallel processing where processors need to be
interconnected as one processor may need the output generated by another.
 The n-dimensional hypercube, or n-cube, Qn, is a common way to connect processors in parallel, e.g., Intel
Hypercube.
Another common method is the mesh network, illustrated here for 16
processors.
Bipartite Graphs
Definition: A simple graph G is bipartite if V can be partitioned into two
disjoint subsets V1 and V2 such that every edge connects a vertex in V1 and a
vertex in V2. In other words, there are no edges which connect two vertices
in V1 or in V2.

It is not hard to show that an equivalent definition of a bipartite graph is a

graph where it is possible to color the vertices red or blue so that no two
adjacent vertices are the same color.

H is not bipartite
G is since if we color a
bipartite red, then the
adjacent vertices f
and b must both
be blue.
Bipartite Graphs (continued)
Example: Show that C6 is bipartite.
Solution: We can partition the vertex set into V1 = {v1, v3,
v5} and V2 = {v2, v4, v6} so that every edge of C6 connects a vertex in V1
and V2 .

Example: Show that C3 is not bipartite.

Solution: If we divide the vertex set of C3 into two nonempty sets, one
of the two must contain two vertices. But in C3 every vertex is
connected to every other vertex. Therefore, the two vertices in the same
partition are connected. Hence, C3 is not bipartite.
Complete Bipartite Graphs
Definition: A complete bipartite graph Km,n is a graph
that has its vertex set partitioned into two subsets
V1 of size m and V2 of size n such that there is an edge
from every vertex in V1 to every vertex in V2.

Example: We display four complete bipartite graphs

here.
New Graphs from Old
Definition: A subgraph of a graph G = (V,E) is a graph (W,F), where W ⊂ V and F ⊂ E. A
subgraph H of G is a proper subgraph of G if H ≠ G.

Example: Here we show K5 and one

of its subgraphs.

Definition: Let G = (V, E) be a simple graph. The subgraph induced by a subset W of the
vertex set V is the graph (W,F), where the edge set F contains an edge in E if and only if
both endpoints are in W.

Example: Here we show K5 and the subgraph induced by W =

{a,b,c,e}.
Bipartite Graphs and Matchings
Bipartite graphs are used to model applications that involve matching
the elements of one set to elements in another, for example:
Job assignments - vertices represent the jobs and the employees, edges
link employees with those jobs they have been trained to do. A common
goal is to match jobs to employees so that the most jobs are done.

Marriage - vertices represent the men and the women and edges link a a
man and a woman if they are an acceptable spouse. We may wish to find
the largest number of possible marriages.

See the text for more about matchings in bipartite graphs.

New Graphs from Old (continued)
Definition: The union of two simple graphs
G1 = (V1, E1) and G2 = (V2, E2) is the simple graph with
vertex set V1 ⋃ V2 and edge set E1 ⋃ E2. The union of G1
and G2 is denoted by G1 ⋃ G2.

Example:
Representing Graphs and
Graph Isomorphism
Section 10.3
Section Summary
Adjacency Lists
Adjacency Matrices
Incidence Matrices
Isomorphism of Graphs
Representing Graphs:
Adjacency Lists
Definition: An adjacency list can be used to represent
a graph with no multiple edges by specifying the
vertices that are adjacent to each vertex of the graph.
Example:

Example:
Representation of Graphs: Adjacency
Matrices
Definition: Suppose that G = (V, E) is a simple graph
where |V| = n. Arbitrarily list the vertices of G as
v1, v2, … , vn. The adjacency matrix AG of G, with
respect to the listing of vertices, is the n × n zero-one
matrix with 1 as its (i, j)th entry when vi and vj are
adjacent, and 0 as its (i, j)th entry when they are not
adjacent.
In other words, if the graphs adjacency matrix is
AG = [aij], then
Adjacency Matrices (continued)
Example: When a graph is sparse, that
is, it has few edges relatively
to the total number of
possible edges, it is much
The ordering of more efficient to represent
vertices is a, b, c, d. the graph using an
adjacency list than an
adjacency matrix. But for a
The ordering of dense graph, which includes
vertices is a, b, c, d. a high percentage of
possible edges, an adjacency
matrix is preferable.

Note: The adjacency matrix of a simple graph is symmetric, i.e., aij = aji
Also, since there are no loops, each diagonal entry aij for i = 1, 2, 3, …, n, is 0.
Adjacency Matrices (continued)
Adjacency matrices can also be used to represent graphs with loops and
multiple edges.
A loop at the vertex vi is represented by a 1 at the (i, j)th position of the
matrix.
When multiple edges connect the same pair of vertices vi and vj, (or if
multiple loops are present at the same vertex), the (i, j)th entry equals the
number of edges connecting the pair of vertices.
Example: We give the adjacency matrix of the pseudograph shown here
using the ordering of vertices a, b, c, d.
Adjacency Matrices (continued)
Adjacency matrices can also be used to represent directed
graphs. The matrix for a directed graph G = (V, E) has a 1 in its
(i, j)th position if there is an edge from vi to vj, where v1, v2, … vn
is a list of the vertices.
 In other words, if the graphs adjacency matrix is AG = [aij], then

 The adjacency matrix for a directed graph does not have to be symmetric,
because there may not be an edge from vi to vj, when there is an edge from vj
to vi.
 To represent directed multigraphs, the value of aij is the number of edges
connecting vi to vj.
Representation of Graphs: Incidence
Matrices
Definition: Let G = (V, E) be an undirected graph
with vertices where v1, v2, … vn and edges
e1, e2, … em. The incidence matrix with respect to the
ordering of V and E is the n × m matrix M = [mij],
where
Incidence Matrices (continued)
Example: Simple Graph and Incidence Matrix
The rows going from top to
bottom represent v1 through
v5 and the columns going
from left to right represent e1
through e6.

Example: Pseudograph and Incidence Matrix

The rows going from top to

bottom represent v1 through
v5 and the columns going
from left to right represent e1
through e8.
Isomorphism of Graphs
Definition: The simple graphs G1 = (V1, E1) and
G2 = (V2, E2) are isomorphic if there is a one-to-one and
onto function f from V1 to V2 with the property that a
and b are adjacent in G1 if and only if f(a) and f(b) are
adjacent in G2 , for all a and b in V1 . Such a function f
is called an isomorphism. Two simple graphs that are
not isomorphic are called nonisomorphic.
Isomorphism of Graphs (cont.)
Example: Show that the graphs G =(V, E) and
H = (W, F) are isomorphic.

Solution: The function f with f(u1) = v1,

f(u2) = v4, f(u3) = v3, and f(u4) = v2 is a
one-to-one correspondence between V and W. Note
that adjacent vertices in G are u1 and u2, u1 and u3, u2 and u4,
and u3 and u4. Each of the pairs f(u1) = v1 and f(u2) = v4, f(u1)
= v1 and f(u3) = v3 , f(u2) = v4 and f(u4) = v2 , and f(u3) = v3
and f(u4) = v2 consists of two adjacent vertices in H.
Isomorphism of Graphs (cont.)
It is difficult to determine whether two simple graphs are isomorphic using
brute force because there are n! possible one-to-one correspondences
between the vertex sets of two simple graphs with n vertices.
The best algorithms for determining weather two graphs are isomorphic
have exponential worst case complexity in terms of the number of vertices
of the graphs.
Sometimes it is not hard to show that two graphs are not isomorphic. We
can do so by finding a property, preserved by isomorphism, that only one of
the two graphs has. Such a property is called graph invariant.
There are many different useful graph invariants that can be used to
distinguish nonisomorphic graphs, such as the number of vertices, number
of edges, and degree sequence (list of the degrees of the vertices in
nonincreasing order). We will encounter others in later sections of this
chapter.
Isomorphism of Graphs (cont.)
Example: Determine whether these two graphs
are isomorphic.

Solution: Both graphs have eight vertices and ten edges.

They also both have four vertices of degree two and four of degree three.

However, G and H are not isomorphic. Note that since deg(a) = 2 in G, a must correspond
to t, u, x, or y in H, because these are the vertices of degree 2. But each of these vertices is
adjacent to another vertex of degree two in H, which is not true for a in G.

Alternatively, note that the subgraphs of G and H made up of vertices of

degree three and the edges connecting them must be isomorphic.
But the subgraphs, as shown at the right, are not isomorphic.
Isomorphism of Graphs (cont.)
Example: Determine whether these two graphs
are isomorphic.

Solution: Both graphs have six vertices and seven edges.

They also both have four vertices of degree two and two of degree three.
The subgraphs of G and H consisting of all the vertices of degree two and the edges connecting them are
isomorphic. So, it is reasonable to try to find an isomorphism f.

We define an injection f from the vertices of G to the vertices of H that preserves the degree of vertices.
We will determine whether it is an isomorphism.

The function f with f(u1) = v6, f(u2) = v3, f(u3) = v4, and f(u4) = v5 , f(u5) = v1, and f(u6) = v2 is a one-to-one
correspondence between G and H. Showing that this correspondence preserves edges is straightforward,
so we will omit the details here. Because f is an isomorphism, it follows that G and H are isomorphic
graphs.

See the text for an illustration of how adjacency matrices can be used for this verification.
Algorithms for Graph Isomorphism
The best algorithms known for determining whether two
graphs are isomorphic have exponential worst-case time
complexity (in the number of vertices of the graphs).
However, there are algorithms with linear average-case
time complexity.
You can use a public domain program called NAUTY to
determine in less than a second whether two graphs with
as many as 100 vertices are isomoprhic.
Graph isomorphism is a problem of special interest
because it is one of a few NP problems not known to be
either tractable or NP-complete (see Section 3.3).
Applications of Graph Isomorphism
The question whether graphs are isomorphic plays an important role in
applications of graph theory. For example,
chemists use molecular graphs to model chemical compounds. Vertices
represent atoms and edges represent chemical bonds. When a new
compound is synthesized, a database of molecular graphs is checked to
determine whether the graph representing the new compound is
isomorphic to the graph of a compound that this already known.
Electronic circuits are modeled as graphs in which the vertices represent
components and the edges represent connections between them. Graph
isomorphism is the basis for
 the verification that a particular layout of a circuit corresponds to the
design’s original schematics.
 determining whether a chip from one vendor includes the intellectual
property of another vendor.
Exercises
Connectivity
Section 10.4
Section Summary
Paths
Connectedness in Undirected Graphs
Vertex Connectivity and Edge Connectivity (not
currently included in overheads)
Connectedness in Directed Graphs
Paths and Isomorphism (not currently included in
overheads)
Counting Paths between Vertices
Paths
Informal Definition: A path is a sequence of edges that
begins at a vertex of a graph and travels from vertex to
vertex along edges of the graph. As the path travels along
its edges, it visits the vertices along this path, that is, the
endpoints of these.
Applications: Numerous problems can be modeled with
paths formed by traveling along edges of graphs such as:
 determining whether a message can be sent between
two computers.
 efficiently planning routes for mail delivery.
Paths
Definition: Let n be a nonnegative integer and G an undirected graph. A path of
length n from u to v in G is a sequence of n edges e1, … , en of G for which there exists a
sequence x0 = u, x1, …, xn-1, xn = v of vertices such that ei has, for i = 1, …, n, the
endpoints xi-1 and xi.
 When the graph is simple, we denote this path by its vertex sequence x0,
x1, … , xn(since listing the vertices uniquely determines the path).
 The path is a circuit if it begins and ends at the same vertex (u = v) and has length
greater than zero.
 The path or circuit is said to pass through the vertices x1, x2, … , xn-1 and traverse
the edges e1, … , en.
 A path or circuit is simple if it does not contain the same edge more than once.

This terminology is readily extended

to directed graphs. (see text)
Paths (continued)
Example: In the simple graph here:
a, d, c, f, e is a simple path of length 4.
d, e, c, a is not a path because e is not connected to c.
b, c, f, e, b is a circuit of length 4.
a, b, e, d, a, b is a path of length 5, but it is not a simple
path.
Degrees of Separation
Example: Paths in Acquaintanceship Graphs. In an
acquaintanceship graph there is a path between two
people if there is a chain of people linking these
people, where two people adjacent in the chain know
one another. In this graph there is a chain of six people
linking Kamini and Ching.

Some have speculated that almost

every pair of people in the world
are linked by a small chain of no
more than six, or maybe even, five
people. The play Six Degrees of
Separation by John Guare is based
on this notion.
Erdős numbers Paul Erdős

Example: Erdős numbers.

In a collaboration graph, two people a and b are
connected by a path when there is a sequence of
people starting with a and ending with b such
that the endpoints of each edge in the path are
people who have collaborated.
 In the academic collaboration graph of people who have
written papers in mathematics, the Erdős number of a
person m is the length of the shortest path between m and
the prolific mathematician Paul Erdős.
 To learn more about Erdős numbers, visit
http://www.ams.org/mathscinet/collaborationDistance.html
Bacon Numbrers
 In the Hollywood graph, two actors a
and b are linked when there is a chain of
actors linking a and b, where every two
actors adjacent in the chain have acted in the
same movie.
 The Bacon number of an actor c is defined to be the length
of the shortest path connecting c and the well-known actor
Kevin Bacon. (Note that we can define a similar number by
replacing Kevin Bacon by a different actor.)
 The oracle of Bacon web site http://oracleofbacon.org/how.php
provides a tool for finding Bacon numbers.
Connectedness in Undirected Graphs
Definition: An undirected graph is called connected if there is a
path between every pair of vertices. An undirected graph that is
not connected is called disconnected. We say that we disconnect a
graph when we remove vertices or edges, or both, to produce a
disconnected subgraph.
Example: G1 is connected because there is a path between any
pair of its vertices, as can be easily seen. However G2 is not
connected because there is no path between vertices a and f, for
example.
Connected Components
Definition: A connected component of a graph G is a connected
subgraph of G that is not a proper subgraph of another connected
subgraph of G. A graph G that is not connected has two or more
connected components that are disjoint and have G as their
union.
Example: The graph H is the union of three disjoint subgraphs
H1, H2, and H3, none of which are proper subgraphs of a larger
connected subgraph of G.These three subgraphs are the
connected components of H.
Connectedness in Directed Graphs
Definition: A directed graph is strongly connected if
there is a path from a to b and a path from b to a
whenever a and b are vertices in the graph.
Definition: A directed graph is weakly connected if
there is a path between every two vertices in the
underlying undirected graph, which is the undirected
graph obtained by ignoring the directions of the edges
of the directed graph.
Connectedness in Directed Graphs
(continued)
Example: G is strongly connected because
there is a path between any two vertices in the
directed graph. Hence, G is also weakly
connected. The graph H is not strongly
connected, since there is no directed path from a to b, but it is weakly
connected.

Definition: The subgraphs of a directed graph G that are strongly connected

but not contained in larger strongly connected subgraphs, that is, the maximal
strongly connected subgraphs, are called the strongly connected components or
strong components of G.

Example (continued): The graph H has three strongly connected components,

consisting of the vertex a; the vertex e; and the subgraph consisting of the
vertices b, c, d and edges (b,c), (c,d), and (d,b).
The Connected Components of the Web
Graph
Recall that at any particular instant the web graph provides a snapshot of the web,
where vertices represent web pages and edges represent links. According to a 1999
study, the Web graph at that time had over 200 million vertices and over 1.5 billion
edges. (The numbers today are several orders of magnitude larger.)
The underlying undirected graph of this Web graph has a connected component that
includes approximately 90% of the vertices.
There is a giant strongly connected component (GSCC) consisting of more than 53
million vertices. A Web page in this component can be reached by following links
starting in any other page of the component. There are three other categories of
pages with each having about 44 million vertices:
pages that can be reached from a page in the GSCC, but do not link back.
pages that link back to the GSCC, but can not be reached by following links from pages in
the GSCC.
pages that cannot reach pages in the GSCC and can not be reached from pages in the
GSCC.
Counting Paths between Vertices
We can use the adjacency matrix of a graph to find the number of paths between two vertices in the
graph.

Theorem: Let G be a graph with adjacency matrix A with respect to the ordering v1, … , vn
of vertices (with directed or undirected edges, multiple edges and loops allowed). The number of
different paths of length r from vi to vj, where r >0 is a positive integer, equals the (i,j)th entry of Ar.

Proof by mathematical induction:

Basis Step: By definition of the adjacency matrix, the number of paths from vi to vj of length 1 is the (i,j)th
entry of A.
Inductive Step: For the inductive hypothesis, we assume that that the (i,j)th entry of Ar is the number of
different paths of length r from vi to vj.
 Because Ar+1 = Ar A, the (i,j)th entry of Ar+1 equals bi1a1j + bi2a2j + ⋯ + binanj, where bik is the (i,k)th entry of
Ar. By the inductive hypothesis, bik is the number of paths of length r from vi to vk.
 A path of length r + 1 from vi to vj is made up of a path of length r from vi to some vk , and an edge from vk
to vj. By the product rule for counting, the number of such paths is the product of the number of paths of
length r from vi to vk (i.e., bik ) and the number of edges from from vk to vj (i.e, akj). The sum over all
possible intermediate vertices vk is bi1a1j + bi2a2j + ⋯ + binanj .
Counting Paths between Vertices
(continued)
Example: How many paths of length four are there from a to d in
the graph G.
adjacency
G A=
matrix of G

Solution: The adjacency matrix of G (ordering the

vertices as a, b, c, d) is given above. Hence A4 = the
number of paths of length four from a to d is
the (1, 4)th entry of A4 . The eight paths are as:
a, b, a, b, d a, b, a, c, d
a, b, d, b, d a, b, d, c, d
a, c, a, b, d a, c, a, c, d
a, c, d, b, d a, c, d, c, d
Euler and Hamiltonian
Graphs
Section 10.5
Section Summary
Euler Paths and Circuits
Hamilton Paths and Circuits
Applications of Hamilton Circuits
Euler Paths and Circuits
The town of Kӧnigsberg, Prussia (now Kalingrad, Russia) was divided into four
sections by the branches of the Pregel river. In the 18th century seven bridges
connected these regions.
People wondered whether whether it was possible to follow a path that crosses
each bridge exactly once and returns to the starting point.
The Swiss mathematician Leonard Euler proved that no such path exists. This
result is often considered to be the first theorem ever proved in graph theory.

Multigraph
Model of the
Bridges of
Kӧnigsberg
The 7 Bridges of Kӧnigsberg
Euler Paths and Circuits (continued)
Definition: An Euler circuit in a graph G is a simple circuit
containing every edge of G. An Euler path in G is a simple path
containing every edge of G.
Example: Which of the undirected graphs G1, G2, and G3 has a Euler
circuit? Of those that do not, which has an Euler path?

Solution: The graph G1 has an Euler circuit (e.g., a, e, c, d, e, b, a).

But, as can easily be verified by inspection, neither G2 nor G3 has an
Euler circuit. Note that G3 has an Euler path (e.g., a, c, d, e, b, d, a, b),
but there is no Euler path in G2, which can be verified by inspection.
Necessary Conditions for Euler Circuits
and Paths
An Euler circuit begins with a vertex a and continues with an edge
incident with a, say {a, b}. The edge {a, b} contributes one to deg(a).
Each time the circuit passes through a vertex it contributes two to the
vertex’s degree.
Finally, the circuit terminates where it started, contributing one to
deg(a). Therefore deg(a) must be even.
We conclude that the degree of every other vertex must also be even.
By the same reasoning, we see that the initial vertex and the final vertex
of an Euler path have odd degree, while every other vertex has even
degree. So, a graph with an Euler path has exactly two vertices of odd
degree.
In the next slide we will show that these necessary conditions are also
sufficient conditions.
Sufficient Conditions for Euler Circuits
and Paths
Suppose that G is a connected multigraph with ≥ 2 vertices, all of even degree. Let x0 = a be
a vertex of even degree. Choose an edge {x0, x1} incident with a and proceed to build a
simple path {x0, x1}, {x1, x2}, …, {xn-1, xn} by adding edges one by one until another edge can
not be added.
We illustrate this idea in the graph G here.
We begin at a and choose the edges
{a, f}, {f, c}, {c, b}, and {b, a} in succession.

The path begins at a with an edge of the form {a, x}; we show that it must terminate at a
with an edge of the form {y, a}. Since each vertex has an even degree, there must be an
even number of edges incident with this vertex. Hence, every time we enter a vertex other
than a, we can leave it. Therefore, the path can only end at a.
If all
Inofthe
theexample
edges haveH consists of the
been used, an Euler circuit has been constructed. Otherwise,
vertices
consider thec,subgraph
d, e. H obtained from G by deleting the edges already used.
Sufficient Conditions for Euler Circuits
and Paths (continued)

Because G is connected, H must have at least one vertex in common with the circuit that has been deleted.

In the example, the vertex is c.

 Every vertex in H must have even degree because all the vertices in G have even degree and for each vertex,
pairs of edges incident with this vertex have been deleted. Beginning with the shared vertex construct a
path ending in the same vertex (as was done before). Then splice this new circuit into the original circuit.

In the example, we end up with the circuit a, f, c,

Continue
d, e, c,this process until all edges have been used. This produces an Euler circuit. Since every edge is
b, a.
included and no edge is included more than once.
Similar reasoning can be used to show that a graph with exactly two vertices of odd degree must have an
Euler path connecting these two vertices of odd degree
Algorithm for Constructing an Euler Circuits
In our proof we developed this algorithms for
constructing a Euler circuit in a graph with no vertices of
odd degree.
procedure Euler(G: connected multigraph with all vertices of even degree)
circuit := a circuit in G beginning at an arbitrarily chosen vertex with edges
successively added to form a path that returns to this vertex.
H := G with the edges of this circuit removed
while H has edges
subciruit := a circuit in H beginning at a vertex in H that also is
an endpoint of an edge in circuit.
H := H with edges of subciruit and all isolated vertices removed
circuit := circuit with subcircuit inserted at the appropriate vertex.
return circuit{circuit is an Euler circuit}
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for
Euler Circuits and Paths (continued)
Theorem: A connected multigraph with at least two vertices has
an Euler circuit if and only if each of its vertices has an even degree
and it has an Euler path if and only if it has exactly two vertices of
odd degree.

Example: Two of the vertices in the multigraph model of the

Kӧnigsberg bridge problem have odd degree. Hence, there is no
Euler circuit in this multigraph and it is impossible to start at a
given point, cross each bridge exactly once, and return to the
starting point.
Euler Circuits and Paths
Example:

G1 contains exactly two vertices of odd degree (b and d). Hence it has an
Euler path, e.g., d, a, b, c, d, b.

G2 has exactly two vertices of odd degree (b and d). Hence it has an Euler
path, e.g., b, a, g, f, e, d, c, g, b, c, f, d.

G3 has six vertices of odd degree. Hence, it does not have an Euler path.
Applications of Euler Paths and Circuits
Euler paths and circuits can be used to solve many practical
problems such as finding a path or circuit that traverses each
 street in a neighborhood,
road in a transportation network,
connection in a utility grid,
link in a communications network.
Other applications are found in the
layout of circuits,
network multicasting,
molecular biology, where Euler paths are used in the
sequencing of DNA.
 William Rowan
Hamilton
(1805- 1865)

Hamilton Paths and Circuits

Euler paths and circuits contained every edge only once. Now we look at paths and circuits that contain every
vertex exactly once.
William Hamilton invented the Icosian puzzle in 1857. It consisted of a wooden dodecahedron (with 12 regular
pentagons as faces), illustrated in (a), with a peg at each vertex, labeled with the names of different cities.
String was used to used to plot a circuit visiting 20 cities exactly once
The graph form of the puzzle is given in (b).

The solution (a Hamilton circuit) is given here.

Hamilton Paths and Circuits
Definition: A simple path in a graph G that passes through every vertex
exactly once is called a Hamilton path, and a simple circuit in a graph G that
passes through every vertex exactly once is called a Hamilton circuit.

That is, a simple path x0, x1, …, xn-1, xn in the graph G = (V, E) is called a
Hamilton path if V = {x0, x1, … , xn-1, xn } and xi ≠ xj for 0≤ i < j ≤ n, and the
simple circuit x0, x1, …, xn-1, xn, x0 (with n > 0) is a Hamilton circuit if
x0, x1, … , xn-1, xn is a Hamilton path.
Hamilton Paths and Circuits (continued)
Example: Which of these simple graphs has a
Hamilton circuit or, if not, a Hamilton path?

Solution: G2 has a Hamilton circuit: a, b, c, d, e, a.

G1 does not have a Hamilton circuit (Why?), but does
have a Hamilton path : a, b, e, c, d.
G3 does not have a Hamilton circuit, or a Hamilton
path. Why?
Necessary Conditions for
Hamilton Circuits Gabriel Andrew Dirac
(1925-1984)
Unlike for an Euler circuit, no simple necessary and sufficient
conditions are known for the existence of a Hamiton circuit.
However, there are some useful necessary conditions. We describe
two of these now.
Dirac’s Theorem: If G is a simple graph with n ≥ 3 vertices such that
the degree of every vertex in G is ≥ n/2, then G has a Hamilton circuit.

Ore’s Theorem: If G is a simple graph with n ≥ 3 vertices such that

deg(u) + deg(v) ≥ n for every pair of nonadjacent vertices, then G has
a Hamilton circuit.
Øysten Ore
(1899-1968)
Applications of Hamilton Paths and Circuits
Applications that ask for a path or a circuit that visits each
intersection of a city, each place pipelines intersect in a utility
grid, or each node in a communications network exactly once, can
be solved by finding a Hamilton path in the appropriate graph.
The famous traveling salesperson problem (TSP) asks for the
shortest route a traveling salesperson should take to visit a set of
cities. This problem reduces to finding a Hamilton circuit such
that the total sum of the weights of its edges is as small as
possible.
A family of binary codes, known as Gray codes, which minimize
the effect of transmission errors, correspond to Hamilton circuits
in the n-cube Qn. (See the text for details.)
Chapter Summary
Graphs and Graph Models
Graph Terminology and Special Types of Graphs
Representing Graphs and Graph Isomorphism
Connectivity
Euler and Hamiltonian Graphs