Chapter2 1

Chapter Lecture
Lecture

Fundamentals of General,
Organic, and Biological
Chemistry
8th Edition
McMurry, Ballantine, Hoeger, Peterson

Chapter One
Matter and Measurements

Christina A. Johnson
University of California, San Diego

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Outline
1.1 Chemistry: The Central Science
1.2 States of Matter
1.3 Classification of Matter
1.4 Chemical Elements and Symbols
1.5 Chemical Reactions: Examples of Chemical Change
1.6 Physical Quantities: Units and Scientific Notation
1.7 Measuring Mass, Length, and Volume
1.8 Measurement and Significant Figures
1.9 Rounding Off Numbers
1.10 Problem Solving: Unit Conversions and Estimating
Answers
1.11 Temperature, Heat, and Energy
1.12 Density and Specific Gravity

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.1 Chemistry: The Central Science

Chemistry is often referred to as “the central

science” because it is essential to nearly all
other sciences.

Learning Objective: Identify properties of matter and

differentiate between chemical and physical changes.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.1 Chemistry: The Central Science

• Chemistry: The study of the nature,

properties, and transformations of matter

• Matter: The physical material that makes

up the universe; anything that has mass
and occupies space (things you can see,
touch, taste, or smell)

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.1 Chemistry: The Central Science

• Scientific method: The process of

observation, hypothesis, and experimentation
used to expand a body of knowledge

• All of chemistry is based on the study of

matter and the changes that matter
undergoes.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.1 Chemistry: The Central Science

• Property: A characteristic useful for

identifying a substance or object
Properties include:
– Size
– Color
– Temperature
– Chemical composition (what the matter is
made of)
– Chemical reactivity (how the matter
behaves)
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.1 Chemistry: The Central Science

Physical change: A change

that does not affect the
chemical makeup of a
substance or object

Chemical change: A change

in the chemical makeup of
a substance

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.1 Chemistry: The Central Science

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.1

Identify each of the following as a chemical

change or a physical change.

(a) Sugar dissolving in water

(b) Sugar heated in a saucepan to make

caramel

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.1 Cont.

ANALYSIS: A physical change does not

result in a change in the identity of the
substance, whereas a chemical change
results in the creation of a new substance
with properties that are different than the
original substance.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.1 Cont.

Solution:
(a) Physical change: When sugar dissolves
in water, the sugar and the water retain their
identity. The water can be removed by
evaporation, and the sugar can be recovered
in its original form.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.1 Cont.

Solution Continued:
(b) Chemical change: When sugar is heated
in a saucepan, it melts and darkens and
thickens into caramel. When cooled, the
caramel clearly has significantly different
properties (color, consistency) than the
original sugar, indicating that a chemical
change has occurred and a new substance
has been formed.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.1 Chemistry: The Central Science

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.2 States of Matter

Matter exists in three forms: solid, liquid, and gas.

Learning Objective: Identify the three states of

matter and describe their properties.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.2 States of Matter
The three forms of matter are:

• Solid: A substance that has a definite

shape and volume

• Liquid: A substance that has a definite

volume but assumes the shape of its
container

• Gas: A substance that has neither a

definite volume nor a definite shape
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.2 States of Matter
Many substances can exist in all three phases,
and participate in changes of state.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.2 States of Matter

• States of matter: The physical state of

a substance as a solid (s), liquid (l), or a
gas (g)

• Change of state: The conversion of a

substance from one state to another—
for example, from liquid (l) to gas (g)

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.2

Formaldehyde is a disinfectant, a preservative,

and a raw material for the manufacturing of
plastics. Its melting point is –92 °C, and its
boiling point is –19.5 °C. Is formaldehyde a
gas, a liquid, or a solid at room temperature
(25 °C)? (Note: Room temperature in the
Fahrenheit scale (°F), with which you may be
more familiar, is around 78 °F.)

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.2 Cont.

ANALYSIS: The state of matter of any

substance depends on its temperature.
How do the melting point and boiling point
of formaldehyde compare with room
temperature?

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.2 Cont.

Solution:
Room temperature (25 °C) is above the
boiling point of formaldehyde (–19.5 °C), and
so the formaldehyde is a gas.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.3 Classification of Matter

Every sample of matter is either a pure substance

or a mixture.

Learning Objective: Distinguish between mixtures

and pure substances and classify pure substances
as elements or compounds.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.3 Classification of Matter

• Pure substance: A substance that has a

uniform chemical composition throughout
• Mixture: A blend of two or more substances,
each of which retains its chemical identity

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.3 Classification of Matter

• Homogeneous mixture: A uniform mixture

that has the same composition throughout
• Heterogeneous mixture: A nonuniform
mixture that has regions of different
composition

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.3 Classification of Matter

Pure substances can be classified into two

groups:
• Element: A fundamental substance that
cannot be broken down chemically into
any simpler substance
• Chemical compound: A pure
substance that can be broken down into
simpler substances by chemical
reactions

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.3 Classification of Matter

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.3

Classify each of the following as a mixture

or a pure substance. If a mixture, classify it
as heterogeneous or homogeneous. If a
pure substance, identify it as an element or
compound.

(a) Vanilla ice cream

(b) Sugar

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.3 Cont.

ANALYSIS: Refer to the definitions of pure

substances and mixtures. Is the substance
composed of more than one kind of matter?
Is the composition uniform?

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.3 Cont.

Solution:
(a) Vanilla ice cream is composed of more
than one substance—cream, sugar, and
vanilla flavoring. The composition appears to
be uniform throughout, so this is a
homogenous mixture.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.3 Cont.

Solution Continued:
(b) Sugar is composed of only one kind of
matter—pure sugar. This is a pure
substance. It can be converted to some other
substance by a chemical change, so it is not
an element. It must be a compound.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.4 Chemical Elements and Symbols

118 elements have been identified; 91 occur

naturally.

Learning Objective: Identify the symbols and names

of the common elements.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.4 Chemical Elements and Symbols

• Rather than writing out the full names of

elements, chemists use a shorthand
notation in which elements are referred to
by one- or two-letter symbols.
– The first letter is always capitalized.
– The second letter, if any, is always
lowercase.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.4 Chemical Elements and Symbols

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.4 Chemical Elements and Symbols

• Most of the symbols are based on the

elements’ commonly used names.
• A few symbols are based on Latin names
for the elements.
– Such as Na for sodium, once known as
natrium.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.4 Chemical Elements and Symbols

Not all elements occur with equal abundance.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.4 Chemical Elements and Symbols

• The symbols of elements are combined to

form chemical formulas.

• Chemical formula: A notation for a chemical

compound using element symbols and
subscripts to show how many atoms of each
element are present

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.4 Chemical Elements and Symbols

• Subscripts show how many atoms (the

smallest fundamental units) of each element
are in a given chemical compound. When no
subscript is given for an element, a subscript
of “1” is understood.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.4 Chemical Elements and Symbols

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.5 Chemical Reactions: Examples of
Chemical Change

Chemists represent chemical changes using

a symbolic shorthand notation called a
chemical reaction.

Learning Objective: Identify a chemical change as a

chemical reaction.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.5 Chemical Reactions: Examples of
Chemical Change

Chemical reaction: A process in which the

identity and composition of one or more
substances are changed
Reactant: A starting substance that undergoes
change during a chemical reaction
Product: A substance formed as the result of
a chemical reaction

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.5 Chemical Reactions: Examples of
Chemical Change

Water can be chemically changed by passing

an electric current through it to produce
hydrogen and oxygen.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.5 Chemical Reactions: Examples of
Chemical Change

• The reactant (water) is written on the left.

• The products (hydrogen and oxygen) are written
on the right.
• An arrow connects the two parts to indicate a
chemical reaction. The conditions necessary are
written above and below the arrow.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.5 Chemical Reactions: Examples of
Chemical Change

• A chemical reaction occurs when the

reactants, nickel (s) and hydrochloric acid
in a solution of water, are added together.
• The reaction involves a color change and
the production of bubbles (a gas).
• The products are nickel(II) chloride and
hydrogen gas.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.5 Chemical Reactions: Examples of
Chemical Change

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.5 Chemical Reactions: Examples of
Chemical Change

The reaction of nickel with hydrochloric acid can be

written in either words or a shorthand notation using
symbols to represent the elements or compounds
involved as reactants and products.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.6 Physical Quantities: Units and Scientific
Notation

Our understanding of matter depends on our

ability to measure the changes in physical
properties associated with physical and chemical
change.

Learning Objective: Write very large and very small

numbers using scientific notation or units with
appropriate numerical prefixes.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.6 Physical Quantities: Units and Scientific
Notation

• Mass, volume, temperature, density, and

other physical properties are called
physical quantities and are described by
both a number and a unit:

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.6 Physical Quantities: Units and Scientific
Notation

• Physical quantity: A physical property that

can be measured

• Unit: A defined quantity used as a standard

of measurement

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.6 Physical Quantities: Units and Scientific
Notation

Scientists have agreed on the Système

International d’Unites (International System of
Units), abbreviated SI.
• Mass is measured in kilograms (kg).
• Length is measured in meters (m).
• Volume is measured in cubic meters (m3).
• Temperature is measured in kelvins (K).
• Time is measured in seconds (s).

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.6 Physical Quantities: Units and Scientific
Notation

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.6 Physical Quantities: Units and Scientific
Notation

SI units are related to metric units, with a few

differences.
• The metric unit of mass is the gram (g) rather than
the kilogram (1g = 1/1000 kg).
• The metric unit of volume is the liter (L) rather than
the cubic meter (1L = 1/1000 m3).
• The metric unit of temperature is the Celsius
degree (°C) rather than the kelvin.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.6 Physical Quantities: Units and Scientific
Notation

Derived units:

• Speed: meters per second (m/s)

• Density: grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3)

Unit sizes are often inconveniently large or

small, so they can be modified using prefixes
to refer to smaller or larger quantities.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.6 Physical Quantities: Units and Scientific
Notation

• One problem with any system of

measurement is that the sizes of the units
often turn out to be inconveniently large or
small for the problem at hand.
• Metric and SI units can be modified by
prefixes to refer to either smaller or larger
quantities.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.6 Physical Quantities: Units and Scientific
Notation

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.6 Physical Quantities: Units and Scientific
Notation

• Scientific notation: A number expressed as the

product of a number between 1 and 10, times 10
raised to a power

215 = 2.15 × 100 = 2.15 × (10 × 10) = 2.15 × 102

• The exponent on the 10 tells how many places

the decimal point was moved to position it just
after the first digit.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.6 Physical Quantities: Units and Scientific
Notation

• To express a number smaller than 1 in

scientific notation, the decimal point is
moved to the right until it follows the first
digit. The number of places moved is the
negative exponent of 10.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.6 Physical Quantities: Units and Scientific
Notation

• To convert a number written in scientific

notation to standard notation, the process
is reversed.
– Positive exponent—The decimal point is
moved to the right a number of places
equal to the exponent.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.6 Physical Quantities: Units and Scientific
Notation

– Negative exponent—The decimal point

is moved to the left a number of places
equal to the exponent.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.4
The HIV-1 virus particles seen in the photo below
are very small, on the order of 0.000000120 m in
diameter. Express this value using scientific notation
and using an appropriate numerical prefix to modify
the basic unit.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.4 Cont.

ANALYSIS: The number is significantly less

than 1, so when we convert to scientific
notation, we should have a number with a
negative exponent. We can use the value of
that exponent to identify the appropriate
numerical prefix.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.4 Cont.

Solution:
To convert to scientific notation, we have to
move the decimal place to the right by seven
places, so 0.000000120 m = 1.20 × 10–7 m.
The closest numerical prefixes are micro (10–6)
or nano (10–9).

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.4 Cont.

Solution Continued:
If we moved the decimal place six places to the
right, we would obtain:
0.000000120 m = 0.120 × 10–6 micrometers (mm)

If we moved the decimal place nine places to the

right, we would obtain:
0.000000120 m = 120 × 10–9 nanometers (nm)

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.7 Measuring Mass, Length, and Volume

The terms mass and weight, though often used

interchangeably, really have quite different
meanings.

Learning Objective: Name and correctly use the

metric and SI units of measurement for mass,
length, volume, and temperature and convert units
appropriately.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.7 Measuring Mass, Length, and Volume

• Mass: A measure of the amount of matter in

an object

• Weight: A measure of the gravitational force

that the earth or other large body exerts on
an object

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.7 Measuring Mass, Length, and Volume
The mass of an object can be determined by
comparing the weight of the object to the
weight of a known reference standard.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.7 Measuring Mass, Length, and Volume

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.7 Measuring Mass, Length, and Volume

• The meter is the standard measure of

length, or distance, in the SI and metric
systems.

• One meter is 39.37 inches, a length that is

much too large for most measurements in
chemistry and medicine.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.7 Measuring Mass, Length, and Volume

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.7 Measuring Mass, Length, and Volume
• Volume is the amount of space occupied by
an object. The SI unit for volume—the cubic
meter, m3—is so large that the liter is much
more commonly used.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.7 Measuring Mass, Length, and Volume

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.8 Measurement and Significant Figures

Every experimental measurement, no matter

how precise, has a degree of uncertainty to it
because there is always a limit to the number
of digits that can be determined.

Learning Objective: Use significant figures and

scientific notation to represent the precision of a
measurement.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.8 Measurement and Significant Figures

• Every experimental
measurement has a
degree of uncertainty.
• The value recorded
should use all the digits
known with certainty, plus
one estimated digit.
• Significant figures: The
number of meaningful
digits used to express a
value

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.8 Measurement and Significant Figures

Rules for Significant Figures

Rule 1: Zeroes in the middle of a number
are like any other digit; they are always
significant.

94.072 g has five significant figures.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.8 Measurement and Significant Figures

Rules for Significant Figures

Rule 2: Zeroes at the beginning of a number
are not significant; they act only to locate the
decimal point.

0.0834 cm has three significant figures.

0.02907 mL has four significant figures.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.8 Measurement and Significant Figures

Rules for Significant Figures

Rule 3: Zeroes at the end of a number and
after the decimal point are significant. It is
assumed that these zeroes would not be
shown unless they were significant.

138.200 m has six significant figures.

138.2 m has only four significant figures.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.8 Measurement and Significant Figures

Rules for Significant Figures

Rule 4: Zeroes at the end of a number and
before an implied decimal point may or may
not be significant.

23,000 kg may have two, three, four, or five

significant figures.
23,000. kg has five significant figures.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.8 Measurement and Significant Figures

Some numbers are exact and effectively have

an unlimited number of significant figures.

• A class might have exactly 32 students (not

31.9, 32.0, or 32.1).

• 1 foot is defined to have exactly 12 inches.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.5

How many significant figures do the following

measurements have?

(a) 2730.78 m

(b) 0.0076 mL

(c) 3400 kg

(d) 3400.0 m2

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.5 Cont.

ANALYSIS: All nonzero numbers are

significant; the number of significant figures
will then depend on the status of the zeroes
in each case. (Hint: Which rule applies in
each case?)

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.5 Cont.

Solution:
(a) Six (rule 1: Zeroes in the middle of a
number are significant.)
(b) Two (rule 2: Leading zeroes after a
decimal point are not significant.)
(c) Two, three, or four (rule 4: Trailing zeroes
with no decimal point may or may not be
significant.)
(d) Five (rule 3: Trailing zeroes are significant
if a decimal point is included.)
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.8 Measurement and Significant Figures

• Scientific notation is helpful when

indicating how many significant figures are
present in a number that has zeroes at the
end but to the left of a decimal point.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.6

There are 1,760,000,000,000,000,000,000

molecules of sucrose (table sugar) in 1 g.
Use scientific notation to express this
number with four significant figures.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.6 Cont.

ANALYSIS: Because the number is larger

than 1, the exponent will be positive. You will
have to move the decimal point 21 places to
the left.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.6 Cont.

Solution:
The first four digits—1, 7, 6, and 0—are
significant, meaning that only the first of the
19 zeroes is significant. Because we have to
move the decimal point 21 places to the left
to put it after the first significant digit, the
answer is 1.760 x 1021.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.7

The rhinovirus responsible for the common cold

has a diameter of 20 nm or 0.000000020 m.
Express this number in scientific notation.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.7 Cont.

ANALYSIS: The number is smaller than 1,

and so the exponent will be negative. You will
have to move the decimal point eight places
to the right.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.7 Cont.

Solution:
There are only two significant figures because
zeroes at the beginning of a number are not
significant. We have to move the decimal point
eight places to the right to place it after the first
digit, so the answer is 2.0 × 10–8 m.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.8

A clinical laboratory found that a blood

sample contained 0.0026 g of phosphorus
and 0.000101 g of iron.

(a) Give quantities in scientific notation.

(b) Give these quantities in the units

normally used to report them—milligrams
for phosphorus and micrograms for iron.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.8 Cont.

ANALYSIS: Is the number larger or smaller

than 1? How many places do you have to
move the decimal point?

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.8 Cont.

Solution:
(a)
0.0026 g phosphorus = 2.6 × 10–3 g phosphorus

0.000101 g iron = 1.01 × 10–4 g iron

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.8 Cont.

Solution Continued:
(b) We know that 1 mg = 1 × 10–3 g, where the
exponent is –3. Expressing the amount of
phosphorus in milligrams is straightforward
because the amount in grams (2.6 × 10–3 g)
already has an exponent of –3. Thus,
2.6 × 10–3 g = 2.6 mg of phosphorus.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.8 Cont.

Solution Continued:
(b) We know that 1 mg = 1 × 10–6 g, where the
exponent is –6. Expressing the amount of
iron in micrograms thus requires that we
restate the amount in grams so that the
exponent is –6. We can do this by moving
the decimal point six places to the right:
0.000101 g iron = 101 × 10–6 g = 101 mg of iron

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.9 Rounding Off Numbers

Rounding off: A procedure used for deleting

nonsignificant figures

Learning Objective: Determine the appropriate

number of significant figures in a calculated result
and round off numbers in calculations involving
measurements.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.9 Rounding Off Numbers

• Calculators often display more digits than

are justified by the precision of the data.

• How do you decide how many digits to

keep?

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.9 Rounding Off Numbers

Determining how many digits to keep:

• Rule 1: In carrying out multiplication or
division, the answer cannot have more
significant figures than the original
numbers.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.9 Rounding Off Numbers

Determining how many digits to keep:

• Rule 2: In carrying out addition or
subtraction, the answer cannot have more
digits after the decimal point than the
original numbers.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.9 Rounding Off Numbers

Once you decide how many digits to retain

for your answer, the rules for rounding off are
straightforward:
• Rule 1: If the first digit you remove is four
or less, drop it and all following digits.
Thus, 2.4271 becomes 2.4 rounded off to
two significant figures because the first of
the dropped digits (2) is four or less.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.9 Rounding Off Numbers
• Rule 2: If the first digit you remove is five
or greater, round the number up by adding
a 1 to the digit to the left of the one you
drop. Thus, 4.5832 becomes 4.6 when
rounded off to two significant figures
because the first of the dropped digits (8)
is five or greater.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.9

Suppose that you weigh 124 lb before dinner.

How much will you weigh after dinner if you eat
1.884 lb of food?

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.9 Cont.

ANALYSIS: When performing addition or

subtraction, the number of significant figures
you report in the final answer is determined
by the number of digits in the least precise
number in the calculation.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.9 Cont.

Solution:
Your after-dinner weight is found by adding
your original weight to the weight of the food
consumed:
124 lb
1.884 lb
125.884 lb (unrounded)

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.9 Cont.

Solution Continued:
Because the value of your original weight has
no significant figures after the decimal point,
your after-dinner weight also must have no
significant figures after the decimal point. Thus,
125.884 lb must be rounded off to 126 lb.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.10

To make currant jelly, 13.75 cups of sugar was

added to 18 cups of currant juice. How much
sugar was added per cup of juice?

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.10 Cont.

ANALYSIS: For calculations involving

multiplication or division, the final answer
cannot have more significant figures than
either of the original numbers.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.10 Cont.
Solution:
The quantity of sugar must be divided by the
quantity of juice:
13.75 cups sugar = 0.76388889 cup sugar
18 cups juice cup juice

The number of significant figures in the answer

is limited to two by the quantity 18 cups in the
calculation and must be rounded to 0.76 cup of
sugar per cup of juice.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.10 Problem Solving: Unit Conversions
and Estimating Answers

Many activities in the laboratory and in

medicine require converting a quantity from
one unit to another.

Learning Objective: Use the factor-label method

(conversion factors) to solve a problem and check
the result to ensure that it makes sense chemically
and physically.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.10 Problem Solving: Unit Conversions
and Estimating Answers

The simplest way to carry out calculations

involving different units is to use the factor-
label method.
• The factor-label method is a problem-
solving procedure in which equations are set
up so that unwanted units cancel and only
the desired units remain.
Starting Quantity × Conversion Factor = Equivalent Quantity

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.10 Problem Solving: Unit Conversions
and Estimating Answers

• The conversion factor is an expression of

the numerical relationship between two units.
• Conversion factors are numerically equal to
one. Multiplying by a conversion factor is
equivalent to multiplying by 1.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.10 Problem Solving: Unit Conversions
and Estimating Answers

• Units are treated like numbers and can thus

be multiplied and divided.
• Set up an equation so that all unwanted units
cancel.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.10 Problem Solving: Unit Conversions
and Estimating Answers

• The main drawback to using the factor-label

method is that it is possible to get an answer
without really understanding what you are
doing.
• Think through a rough estimate, or ballpark
estimate, as a check on your work.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.10 Problem Solving: Unit Conversions
and Estimating Answers

• STEP 1: Identify the information given, including units.

• STEP 2: Identify the information needed in the answer,
including units.
• STEP 3: Find the relationship(s) between the known
information and unknown answer, and plan a series of
steps for getting from one to the other.
• STEP 4: Solve the problem.
• BALLPARK ESTIMATE—Make a ballpark estimate at
the beginning and check it against your final answer to
be sure the value and the units of your calculated
answer are reasonable.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Worked Example 1.11

Write conversion factors for the following pairs

of units:

(a) Deciliters and milliliters

(b) Pounds and grams

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.11 Cont.

ANALYSIS: Start with the appropriate

equivalency relationship and rearrange to form
conversion factors.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.11 Cont.

Solution:
(a) Because 1 dL = 0.1 L and 1 mL = 0.001 L,
then 1 dL = (0.1 L)(1 mL/0.001L) = 100 mL
The conversion factors are:
1 dL and 100 mL
100 mL 1 dL

(b) 1 lb and 454 g

454 g 1 lb
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Worked Example 1.12

(a) Convert 0.75 lb to grams.

(b) Convert 0.50 qt to deciliters.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.12 Cont.

ANALYSIS: Start with conversion factors and

set up equations so that units cancel
appropriately.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.12 Cont.

Solution:
(a) Select the conversion factor so that the “lb”
units cancel and “g” remains:

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.12 Cont.
Solution Continued:
(b) In this, as in many problems, it is convenient to
use more than one conversion factor. As long as
the unwanted units cancel correctly, two or more
conversion factors can be strung together in the
same calculation. In this case, we can convert
first between quarts and milliliters and then
between milliliters and deciliters.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.13

A child is 21.5 inches long at birth. How long

is this in centimeters?

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.13 Cont.

ANALYSIS: This problem calls for converting

from inches to centimeters, so we will need to
know how many centimeters are in an inch and
how to use this information as a conversion
factor.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.13 Cont.

BALLPARK ESTIMATE—It takes about

2.5 cm to make 1 in, so it should take
2.5 times as many centimeters to make a
distance equal to approximately 20 in, or
about 20 in × 2.5 = 50 cm.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.13 Cont.
Solution:
STEP 1: Identify given information.
Length = 21.5 in
STEP 2: Identify answer and units.
Length = ?? cm
STEP 3:  Identify conversion factor.
1 in = 2.54 cm
STEP 4:  Solve: 21.5 in × 2.54 cm/in = 54.6 cm
BALLPARK ESTIMATE—54.6 cm is close to the
estimate.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Worked Example 1.14

A patient requires an injection of 0.012 g of a

painkiller available as a 15 mg/mL solution.
How many milliliters of solution should be
administered?

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.14 Cont.

ANALYSIS: Knowing the amount of painkiller

in 1 mL allows us to use the concentration as a
conversion factor to determine the volume of
solution that would contain the desired
amount.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.14 Cont.

BALLPARK ESTIMATE—One milliliter

contains 15 mg of the painkiller, or 0.015 g.
Because only 0.012 g is needed, a little less
than 1.0 mL should be administered.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.14 Cont.

Solution:
STEP 1: Identify given information.
Dosage = 0.012 g
Concentration = 15 mg/mL
STEP 2: Identify answer and units.
Volume to administer = ?? mL

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.14 Cont.

Solution Continued:
STEP 3: Identify conversion factors. Two
conversion factors are needed. First, g must
be converted to mg. Once we have the
mass in mg, we can calculate mL using the
conversion factor of mL/mg.
1 mg = 0.001 g
15 mg/mL

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.14 Cont.

Solution Continued:
STEP 4: Solve. Starting from the desired dosage,
we use the conversion factors to cancel units,
obtaining the final answer in mL.
(0.012 g)(1 mg/0.001 g)(1 mL/15 mg) = 0.80 mL

BALLPARK ESTIMATE—This is consistent with our

initial estimate of a little less than 1 mL.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.15

Administration of digitalis to control atrial fibrillation

in heart patients must be carefully regulated
because even a modest overdose can be fatal. To
take differences between patients into account,
dosages are sometimes prescribed in micrograms
per kilograms of body weight (mg/kg). Thus, two
people may differ greatly in weight, but both will
receive the proper dosage. At a dosage of 20 mg/kg
body weight, how many milligrams of digitalis
should a 160 lb patient receive?

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.15 Cont.

ANALYSIS: Knowing the patient’s body

weight (in kg) and the recommended dosage
(in mg/kg), we can calculate the appropriate
amount of digitalis.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.15 Cont.

BALLPARK ESTIMATE—Because a kilogram

is roughly equal to 2 lb, a 160 lb patient has a
mass of about 80 kg. At a dosage of 20
mg/kg, an 80 kg patient should receive 80 × 20
mg, or about 1600 mg of digitalis, or 1.6 mg.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.15 Cont.

Solution:
STEP 1: Identify known information.
Patient weight = 160 lb
Prescribed dosage =
20 mg digitalis/kg body weight
STEP 2: Identify answer and units.
Delivered dosage = ?? mg digitalis

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.15 Cont.

Solution Continued:
STEP 3: Identify conversion factors. Two
conversion factors are needed. First, convert the
patient’s weight in pounds to weight in kg. The
correct dose can then be determined based on mg
digitalis/kg body weight. Finally, the dosage in mg
is converted to mg.
1 kg = 2.205 lb
1 mg = (0.001 g)(1 mg/10-6 g) = 1000 mg

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.15 Cont.

Solution Continued:
STEP 4: Solve. Use the known information
and the conversion factors so that units
cancel, obtaining the answer in mg.

BALLPARK ESTIMATE—This is close to our

estimate of 1.6 mg.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.11 Temperature, Heat, and Energy

All chemical reactions

are accompanied by a
change in energy.

Learning Objectives:
• Define the relationship between temperature and
heat energy and convert temperatures between
various temperature scales.
• Use temperature and specific heats to evaluate the
flow of heat/energy in matter.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.11 Temperature, Heat, and Energy

• Energy: The capacity to do work or supply

heat
• Temperature: The measure of the amount
of heat energy in an object; commonly
reported either in Fahrenheit (°F) or
Celsius (°C) units, but the SI unit for
temperature is the kelvin (K)

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.11 Temperature, Heat, and Energy

• The kelvin and the Celsius degree are the

same size.
• Thus, a change in temperature of 1 °C is
equal to a change of 1 K.
• The Celsius scale assigns a value of 0 °C
to the freezing point of water.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.11 Temperature, Heat, and Energy

• The Kelvin scale assigns a value of 0 K to

the coldest possible temperature, absolute
zero, which is equal to –273.15 °C.

Temperature in K = Temperature in °C + 273.15

Temperature in °C = Temperature in K – 273.15

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.11 Temperature, Heat, and Energy

• The Fahrenheit scale defines the freezing

point of water as 32 °F and the boiling point
of water as 212 °F.

• It takes 180 Fahrenheit degrees to cover the

same range encompassed by 100 Celsius
degrees.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.11 Temperature, Heat, and Energy

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.11 Temperature, Heat, and Energy

• A change in temperature of 1.0 °C is equal

to a change of 1.8 °F.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.16

A body temperature above 107 °F can be

fatal. What does 107 °F correspond to on the
Celsius scale?

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.16 Cont.

ANALYSIS: Using the temperature (in °F)

and the appropriate temperature conversion
equation, we can convert from the Fahrenheit
scale to the Celsius scale.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.16 Cont.

BALLPARK ESTIMATE—Note that the

normal body temperature is 98.6 °F or 37 °C.
A temperature of 107 °F is approximately 8 °F
above normal; because 1 °C is nearly 2 °F,
then 8 °F is about 4 °C. Thus, the 107 °F body
temperature is about 41 °C.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.16 Cont.

Solution:
STEP 1: Identify known information.
Temperature = 107 °F
STEP 2: Identify answer and units.
Temperature = ?? °C

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.16 Cont.

Solution Continued:
STEP 3: Identify conversion factors. We
can convert from °F to °C using this
equation:
°C = (°C/1.8 °F)(°F – 32 °F)

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.16 Cont.

Solution Continued:
STEP 4: Solve. Substitute the known
temperature (in °F) into the equation.

BALLPARK ESTIMATE—This is close to

our estimate of 41 °C.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.11 Temperature, Heat, and Energy

• Energy is represented in SI units by the unit

joule (J), but the metric unit calorie (cal) is
still widely used.
• One calorie is the amount of heat necessary
to raise the temperature of 1 g of water
by 1 °C.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.11 Temperature, Heat, and Energy

• A kilocalorie (kcal), called a large calorie

(Cal) or food calorie by nutritionists, equals
1000 cal.

1000 cal = 1 kcal 1000 J = 1 kJ

1 cal = 4.184 J 1 kcal = 4.184 kJ

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.11 Temperature, Heat, and Energy

• Not all substances have their temperatures

raised to the same extent when equal
amounts of heat energy are added.
• One calorie raises the temperature of 1 g of
water by 1 °C, but raises the temperature of
1 g of iron by 10 °C.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.11 Temperature, Heat, and Energy

• The amount of heat needed to raise the

temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 °C is
called the specific heat.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.11 Temperature, Heat, and Energy

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.11 Temperature, Heat, and Energy

• Knowing the mass and specific heat of a

substance makes it possible to calculate how
much heat must be added or removed to
accomplish a given temperature change.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.17

Taking a bath might use about 95 kg of water.

How much energy (in calories and joules) is
needed to heat the water from a cold 15 °C to
a warm 40 °C?

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.17 Cont.

ANALYSIS: From the amount of water being

heated (95 kg) and the amount of the
temperature change (40 °C – 15 °C = 25 °C),
the total amount of energy needed can be
calculated by using specific heat
[1.00 cal/(g ∙ °C)] as a conversion factor.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.17 Cont.

BALLPARK ESTIMATE—The water is

being heated by 25 °C (from 15 °C to 40
°C), and it therefore takes 25 cal to heat
each gram. The tub contains nearly 100,000
g
(95 kg is 95,000 g), and so it takes about
25 × 100,000 cal, or 2,500,000 cal, to heat
all the water in the tub.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.17 Cont.

Solution:
STEP 1: Identify known information.
Mass of water = 95 kg
Temperature change = 40 °C – 15 °C = 25 °C
STEP 2: Identify answer and units.
Heat = ?? cal

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.17 Cont.

Solution Continued:
STEP 3: Identify conversion factors. The
amount of energy (in cal) can be calculated using
the specific heat of water (cal/(g ∙ °C), and it will
depend on both the mass of water (in g) to be
heated and the total temperature change (in °C).
For the units in specific heat to cancel correctly,
the mass of water must first be converted from
kg to g.
1 kg = 1000 g
Specific heat = (1.0 cal/(g ∙°C)
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Worked Example 1.17 Cont.

Solution Continued:
STEP 4: Solve. Starting with the known
information, use the conversion factors to
cancel unwanted units.

BALLPARK ESTIMATE—This is close to our

estimate of 2.5 × 106 cal.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.12 Density and Specific Gravity

Density: The physical property that relates the

mass of an object to its volume; mass per unit
volume

Learning Objective: Define density and specific

gravity and use these quantities in mass/volume
calculations.
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
 1.12 Density and Specific Gravity
• Density is usually expressed in units of
grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) for solids
and grams per milliliter (g/mL) for liquids.
• If we know the density of a substance, we
know both the mass of a given volume and
the volume of a given mass.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.12 Density and Specific Gravity
• Most substances contract when cooled and
expand when heated.
• Water behaves differently; it contracts when
cooled from 100 °C to 3.98 °C, but below this
temperature it begins to expand again.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.12 Density and Specific Gravity

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.12 Density and Specific Gravity

• Less dense substances

will float on top of a more
dense fluid; ice and other
substances with a density
less than that of water will
float on water.
• Any substance with a
density greater than that of
water will sink in water.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.12 Density and Specific Gravity

• Specific gravity is the density of a

substance divided by the density of water at
the same temperature.
• At normal temperatures, the density of water
is very close to 1 g/mL.
• At normal temperatures, the specific gravity
of a substance is numerically equal to its
density.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 1.12 Density and Specific Gravity

• The specific gravity of a

liquid can be measured
using an instrument called
a hydrometer.
• In medicine, a hydrometer
called a urinometer is
used to indicate the
amount of solids
dissolved in urine.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.18

What volume of isopropyl alcohol (rubbing

alcohol) would you use if you needed 25.0 g?
The density of isopropyl alcohol is 0.7855 g/mL
at 20 °C.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.18 Cont.

ANALYSIS: The known information is the

mass of isopropyl alcohol (25.0 g). The density
(0.7855 g/mL) acts as a conversion factor
between mass and the unknown volume of
isopropyl alcohol.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.18 Cont.

BALLPARK ESTIMATE—Because 1 mL of
isopropyl alcohol contains only 0.7855 g of the
alcohol, obtaining 1 g of alcohol requires
almost 20% more than 1 mL, or about 1.2 mL.
Therefore, a volume of about 25 × 1.2 mL =
30 mL is needed to obtain 25 g of alcohol.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.18 Cont.

Solution:
STEP 1: Identify known information.
Mass of rubbing alcohol = 25.0 g
Density of rubbing alcohol = 0.7855 g/mL
STEP 2: Identify answer and units.
Volume of rubbing alcohol = ?? mL

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.18 Cont.

Solution Continued:
STEP 3: Identify conversion factors.
Starting with the mass of isopropyl alcohol
(in g), the corresponding volume (in mL) can
be calculated using density (g/mL) as the
conversion factor.
Density = g/mL
1/density = mL/g

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Worked Example 1.18 Cont.

Solution Continued:
STEP 4: Solve. Starting with the known
information, set up the equation with the
conversion factors so that unwanted units
cancel.

BALLPARK ESTIMATE—Our estimate was

30 mL.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Concept Map

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.