THERMODYNAMICS 2

Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics - is the study of energy, which is defined as the capacity of a physical

system to do work.
System - is a quantity of matter to study.
boundary of the system - is a real or imaginary surface that separates a system from its
surroundings.
There are two types of systems:
closed system (also known as a control mass)- is a system where mass cannot cross the
boundary but energy can cross the boundary.
open system (also called a control volume) - is a system that usually involves mass flow
across the boundary and energy can also cross the boundary.
Temperature Conversions
Laws of Thermodynamics

zeroth law of thermodynamics - states that if objects A and B are separately in thermal
equilibrium with a third object, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium. This law is the basis
of temperature measurement devices.

The first law of thermodynamics - is essentially conservation of energy that includes

internal energy. Energy comes in a lot of different forms. Heat flow, for example, is a form
of energy transfer occurring when there is a temperature difference between objects.
Problems focusing on the first law can be closed systems or open systems.

The second law of thermodynamics - states that energy has quality, and processes will
occur in direction of decreasing quality. You can think of this as saying that heat will not
spontaneously flow from a cold object to a hot object.
Processes and Cycles
Process - is a change in the system from one equilibrium state to another.
Cycle - the system returns to the initial state at the end of the set of processes.
Properties of Pure Substances

pure substance – a substance with fixed chemical composition throughout. Note that a pure substance
does not need to be a single chemical element. Water, for example, is a pure substance but contains
more than one chemical element.

Phases and Phase Changes - It is commonly known that substances can occur in different phases
(solids, liquids, and gases).When substances are heated or cooled they can change from one phase to
another. A phase change from a solid to a liquid is known as melting, and a phase change from a liquid
to a gas is known as boiling (or vaporization). In the reverse direction, a phase change from a gas to a
liquid is known as condensation and from a liquid to a solid is known as freezing.
compressed liquid (or subcooled liquid)- when a substance occurs in a liquid state.

saturated liquid - As heat is added to a liquid, it will reach a point where any additional
heat added would result in some of the liquid vaporizing. A liquid at that point where it is
about to vaporize is called a saturated liquid.

saturated liquid-vapor mixture – the region where both the liquid and vapor phase exists
together in equilibrium.

superheated vapor - a vapor that is not about to condense.

saturated vapor - As heat is removed from the vapor it will reach the point where the
removal of any additional heat will cause some of the vapor to condense.
Heat Capacity

Heat capacity, as shown in Equation 1, is the heat added divided by the change in temperature.

Specific heat (lower case c) - is the heat capacity per unit mass as shown in Equation 2.

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a mass is given by rearranging Equation
2 to give Equation 3.
Ideal Gas Law

Equation 4

1st Law for Closed Systems

The first law of Thermodynamics is a statement of conservation of energy. The law considers
transfer of heat into a system (Q) , work performed by the system (W) , and the change in internal
energy of the system (∆U) . If you also include the changes in kinetic energy (KE) and potential
energy (PE), the first law equation for a closed system is given in Equation 5.

Q-W= ∆U+∆KE+∆PE Equation 5

Constant Pressure Process (isobaric)
If the pressure does not change during a process, then the process is known as an isobaric process.
Boiling water in an open container as an example, because the open container is at atmospheric
pressure.

Constant Volume Process (isochoric)

If the volume remains constant during the process it is known as an isochoric process. Heating
up a gas in a closed container is an example of an isochoric process. Because the container is
closed no gas can enter or leave the system resulting in a constant volume process.
Constant Entropy Process (isentropic)
A thermodynamic process in which entropy remains constant is known as an isentropic process.
However, the isentropic process requires the understanding of a new property known as entropy.
Entropy, in a very general description, is a measure of disorder in a system. The second law can be
stated more in the sense that the total entropy is always increasing, meaning that disorder in a
system will increase. The second law is a statistical law, meaning that on average every system (as
the total system) will tend toward the condition of maximum disorder (maximum entropy).
Constant Specific Heats Variable Specific Heats
Constant Temperature Process (isothermal)
If the temperature does not change during a process it is an isothermal process.

No Heat Transfer (adiabatic)

An adiabatic process is one where no heat transfer occurs. Processes that occur very rapidly can
be treated as adiabatic because the heat does not have time to flow in or out of the system.
Systems that are fully insulated from the surroundings are also adiabatic.
1st Law for Open Systems

Open systems generally have mass flow across the boundary. Because mass flow has energy, the
first law equation is different than the one used for closed systems. The conservation of mass
principle, which states that the total mass entering a system minus the total mass leaving a system
equals the net change in mass within the system, must also be used. The conservation of energy
equation then becomes

The combination Pv + u is known as enthalpy and is designated by h.

The final form of conservation of energy is expressed as the total energy crossing the boundary
as heat and work per unit time is equal to the total energy transported out of the control volume
with mass per unit time minus the total energy transported into the control volume per unit time.
This statement is expressed mathematically in

where:
Q = rate of heat transfer between the control volume and the surroundings.
W = work per unit time or power.
h = represents enthalpy.
v2 /2 when multiplied by the mass = KE
gz = PE (g is the gravitationalconstant and z is elevation).
m = mass flow rate.
Common Applications of Steady Flow Devices
1. Nozzles and Diffusers
Nozzle - is a device that increases the velocity of a fluid by decreasing the cross-sectional area.
Diffuser - increases the pressure by decreasing the velocity

Flow through nozzles and diffusers happen fast enough that the rate of heat transfer between the fluid
and the surroundings can be neglected (Q ) ≈ 0 . The work term is also zero for both nozzles and
diffusers. The elevation change is either zero or negligible, so the potential energy terms can be
neglected. The first law equation reduces to the form shown in Equation
2. Turbines and Compressors
As a fluid passes through a turbine the blades turn and rotate a shaft to produce work. Therefore, the
work is positive because it is done by the fluid. A compressor increases the pressure of a fluid.
Work is supplied to the compressor from an external source. The work term is negative for
compressors.

Turbines and compressors are often considered adiabatic (Q = 0). Velocity terms can generally be
ignored. The elevation change is either zero or negligible, so the potential energy terms can be
neglected. The first law reduces to the form shown in Equation
3. Throttling Valves

Throttling valves are flow restriction devices used to cause a pressure drop. Throttling valves are
commonly used in refrigeration cycles because the pressure drop is accompanied by a temperature
drop. For throttling valves there is no work and typically no heat transfer. Ignoring velocity terms
and potential energy terms, the first law reduces to the form shown in Equation
Thermodynamic Cycles and Types
Thermodynamic cycle - consists of a series of thermodynamic processes, which take place
in a specific order, and the initial conditions are restored at the end of the processes. When
the processes of cycles are outlined on the p-v diagram, they form a closed figure, each
process described by its own curve.
Since the area under each curve is the work done to some scale. During each process, the
work done during one cycle will be given by the area of the diagram as shown in the figure.
The thermodynamic cycles are very essential for the power developing systems
(such as petrol engine, diesel engine, gas turbine etc.). These engines use a mixture
of fuel and air for their operations. Since the mass of fuel used, as compared to the
mass of air is very small, thus the mixture may be assumed to obey the properties of
a perfect gas.

A cycle, which requires four piston strokes and two complete revolutions of the
crank is known as a four-stroke cycle. But a cycle, which requires only a two-
piston stroke and one revolution of the crank, is known as a two-stroke cycle.
When air is assumed to be the working substance inside the engine cylinder, the
cycle is called an air cycle.
Classification of Thermodynamic Cycle
The thermodynamic cycles are classified into the following two types:

1. Reversible cycle
2. Irreversible cycle
Reversible Cycle

In a reversible process, there should be no loss of heat due to friction, conduction or

radiation, etc. The thermodynamically reversible cycle consists of reversible
processes only. A reversible process is one which is performed at the end of the
process, both the system and surrounding may be restored to their initial state.
This process requires external power to start the mechanism according to the 2nd
law of thermodynamics. A machine which operates on a reversed cycle is
considered as a “heat pump”, for example, a refrigerator because it pumps heat
from the cold body to the hot body.
Following are the conditions for reversibility of a cycle:

1. The temperature and pressure of the working substance must not differ, from
those of the surroundings at any stage in the process.
2. All the processes, taking place in the cycle of operation, must be slow.
3. The moving engine parts must be friction-free.
4. There should be no loss of energy during the cycle of operation.
Irreversible Cycle
Whenever some change in the reverse direction reverses the process completely, it is known as a
reversible process. But if the change does not reverse the process, it is called an irreversible
process. An irreversible process causes heat loss due to friction, radiation or conduction.

In practice, most of the processes are irreversible to some degree. The main causes for the
irreversibility are as follow,

• Mechanical and fluid friction,

• Unrestricted Expansion
• Heat transfer with a finite temperature difference.
Reversibility of Thermodynamic Processes
1. Isothermal and Adiabatic
It may be noted that a complete process or cycle is only an ideal case. But in practice, complete
isothermal and adiabatic processes are not achieved. However, they can be approximated. The simple
reason for the same is that it is impossible to transfer heat at a constant temperature in case of an
isothermal operation.

Moreover, it is also difficult to make an absolutely non-conducting cylinder in case of an adiabatic

process. In actual practice, however, an isothermal operation may be approached if the process is so
slow that the temperature remains, practically, constant.

Similarly, an adiabatic operation may be approached if the process takes place so quickly that no time
is given to the heat to enter or leave the gas. In an isothermal and an adiabatic process are taken as a
reversible process.
2. Constant Volume, Constant Pressure and Constant pv n
We know that when the temperature of the hot body, supplying the heat, remains constant during
the process, the temperature of the working substance will vary as the operation proceeds. In
view of this, the above three operations are irreversible.

But these can be made to approximate to irreversibility by manipulating the temperature of the
hot body to vary so that at any stage the temperature of the working substance remains constant.
In this way, the constant volume, constant pressure and constant pvn process are regarded as
reversible processes.

3. Throttling
This process is irreversible, as there is always a loss of heat due to friction when the working
substance passes through a narrow orifice.
The Difference Between Cycle and Engine

• In the theory of a heat engine, it is assumed that the working fluid is used again
in the cylinder.
• We say that the fluid has undergone a cycle when it passes through different
processes and returns back to its original state.
• In fact, the working fluid in an actual engine does not go through a full cycle
and works on an open cycle.
• for the purpose of simplicity in the analysis, we study the closed cycle (i.e. ideal
cycle), which closely approximates the open cycle.
Working of An Ideal Engine
An ideal engine may be defined as a device, which develops work (i.e. power) continuously with
the help of a working fluid, which undergoes some cyclic process. It is done with the help of a
piston and cylinder as shown in Fig.
In general, the arrangement of piston and cylinder, of an ideal engine constitute
the cycle by the following processes:

1. The air in the cylinder is heated with the help of some external source. It
processes temperature and pressure of the enclosed air.
2. The air expands due to higher pressure to temperature. As a result of this, some
work is done by the gas.
3. The air rejects some heat to the external source. Then the air comes back to the
original conditions.
4. The air is compressed in the cylinder. As a result of this, some work is done on
the air.
Types of Thermodynamic Cycles

Following are the types of thermodynamic cycles:

1. Carnot cycle
2. Stirling cycle
3. Ericsson cycle
4. Joules cycle
5. Otto cycle
6. Diesel cycle
7. Dual combustion cycle
Carnot Cycle
In a Carnot cycle, the work material is subjected to cyclic operation. Carnot cycle consists of two
isothermal and adiabatic processes. The working substance is air in a cylinder in which the piston
moves. The engine must operate between two sources of infinite capacity. One at high temperature
and the other at low temperature.

Stirling Cycle
Stirling cycle was produced by Robert Sterling which includes the original Stirling engine. Stirling
cycle is a modified version of the Carnot cycle. It consists of two isothermal processes and constant
volume processes. The last two processes are performed with the help of a refrigerator to make this
cycle reversible.

Ericson Cycle:
The Ericson cycle is invented by John Ericson. This cycle is consists of two isothermal and
constant pressure processes. It is thermodynamically reversible by the action of a regenerator.
Ericson cycles are used in closed-cycle type gas turbines.
Important Terms for Thermodynamic Cycle
Though there are many terms used in a thermodynamic cycle, yet the following are important from
the subject point of view;
Joule's cycle
Joules Cycle is also known as the Brayton cycle. It is a thermodynamic cycle named after George Brayton. It
describes the workings of a constant-pressure heat engine. Consists of two constant pressure and two adiabatic
processes.

Otto Cycle
An Otto cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that describes the working of a spark ignition piston engine. The modern
petrol engines operate on Otto cycle and generally found in automobile engines.

Diesel Cycle
The engine of heavy motor vehicles works mostly on the diesel cycle. Rudolf Diesel invented the diesel cycle in
1897. The diesel cycle differs from the Otto cycle in one case. This added constant pressure instead of constant
volume. It comprises two adiabatic processes, one constant pressure heat addition process, and one constant
volume heat rejection process.

Dual Combustion Cycle

The dual combustion cycle is the combustion of Otto and diesel cycles. It is also called the semi-diesel cycle
because semi-diesel engines work on this cycle. In this cycle, heat is absorbed partially at constant pressure. It
has two adiabatic, two constant volume, and constant pressure processes.
1. Cylinder Bore:
The diameter of the cylinder, in which the piston moves, is known as cylinder bore.
2. Stroke Length:
The piston moves in the cylinder due to rotation of the crank. Its extreme positions are known as a
top dead centre (TDC) and bottom dead centre (BDC) respectively as shown in Fig. The distance
between the two extreme positions is known as stroke length or stroke.
3. Clearance Volume:
The volume occupied by the working fluid, when the piston reaches the top dead centre, is known
as clearance volume. It is generally denoted by (VC).
4. Stroke Volume:
The volume swept by the piston when it moves between the two extreme positions is known as
swept volume, displacement volume, or stroke volume. Mathematically, swept volume,
5. Full Cylinder Volume:
The volume occupied by the working fluid, when the piston is at the bottom dead center, is known as full
cylinder volume. Mathematically, the full cylinder volume is equal to the sum of clearance volume and swept
volume.

6. Compression Ratio:
The ratio of full cylinder volume to the clearance volume is known as the compression ratio. It is an
important term in an engine. Mathematically, compression ratio,

7. Mean Effective Pressure:

In fact, pressure in the cylinder keeps on varies with the position of the piston. For all sorts of calculations,
we need the mean effective pressure, which may be defined as acting on the piston during the working
stroke.

It will be able to do as much work as the actual varying pressures, generated during the cycle. It is the ratio
of work done to the displacement volume.

Mathematically, mean effective pressure

The Efficiency of a Cycle:

It is described as the ratio of work done to the heat supplied during a cycle. Mathematically, the efficiency of a
cycle.

Since the work was done during a cycle is equal to heat supplied minus the heat rejected, the efficiency of a
cycle, therefore, it is expressed as.

Note:
The above given efficiency is the theoretical efficiency of the cycle. Therefore it is known as theoretical thermal efficiency.
It does not take into account the practical damage done in the running of the engine. To compare the efficiency of a
thermodynamic cycle, the air is considered to be the working substance in the engine cylinder. Moreover, the air is allowed
to act as a perfect gas. Thus, the efficiency obtained is known as air standard efficiency. It is also known as ideal
efficiency.
END OF DISCUSSION