Taibah University

College of Computer Science & Engineering

Course Title: Discrete Mathematics
Code: CS 103

Chapter 2
Sets
Slides are adopted from “Discrete Mathematics and It's Applications”
Kenneth H. Rosen; 7th edition, 2012.
Chapter 2.1

Sets
 2.1 Sets
Definition : A set is an unordered collection of objects.
Definition : The objects in a set are called the elements, or members, of
the set.
 Capital letters (A, B, S…) used for sets
 Italic lower-case letters (a, x, y…) used to denote elements of sets
There are several ways to describe a set.
1. Listing all members of a set, when this is possible
Some examples:
{1, 2, 3} is the set containing “1” and “2” and “3.”
{1, 1, 2, 3, 3} = {1, 2, 3} since repetition is irrelevant.
{1, 2, 3} = {3, 2, 1} since sets are unordered.
{1, 2, 3, …} is a way we denote an infinite set.
 = { } is the empty set, or the set containing no elements.
 Note that   {}
 2.1 Sets
 2. Set Builder notation
Characterize all those elements in the set by stating the property or
properties they must have to be members.
• D = {x | x is prime and x > 2}
• E = {x | x is odd and x > 2}
• The vertical bar means “such that”
 N = {0, 1, 2, 3, …} is the set of natural numbers
 Z = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …} is the set of integers
 Z+ = {1, 2, 3, …} is the set of positive integers
 Z- = {-1, -2, -3, …} is the set of negative integers
 Q = {p/q : p, q  Z, q ≠ 0} is the set of rational numbers
Any number that can be expressed as a fraction of two integers
(where the bottom one is not zero)
 R is the set of real numbers
 R+, the set of positive real numbers
 C, the set of complex numbers.
 2.1 Sets
x  S means “x is an element of set S.”
x  S means “x is not an element of set S.”
Example: 4  {1, 2, 3, 4}
7  {1, 2, 3, 4}
Universal set “U” : the set of all of elements (or the
“universe”) from which given any set is drawn.
 For the set {-2, 0.4, 2}, U would be the real
numbers
 For the set {0, 1, 2}, U could be the N, Z, Q, R
depending on the context
 For the set of the vowels of the alphabet, U would be
all the letters of the alphabet
 2.1 Sets
Venn diagrams
 Sets can be represented graphically using Venn diagrams
• universal set U, which contains all the objects under
consideration, is represented by a rectangle.
• Circles or other geometrical figures Inside this
rectangle are used to represent sets.
• Points represent the particular elements of the set.

U
 2.1 Sets
 Sets can contain other sets
• S = { {1}, {2}, {3} }
• T = { {1}, {{2}}, {{{3}}} }
• V = { {{1}, {{2}}}, {{{3}}}, { {1}, {{2}}, {{{3}}} } }
 V has only 3 elements!
 Note that 1 ≠ {1} ≠ {{1}} ≠ {{{1}}}
They are all different

 ≠ {  }
• The first is a set of zero elements
• The second is a set of 1 element

 Replace  by { }, and you get: { } ≠ {{ }}

• It’s easier to see that they are not equal that way
 2.1 Sets

Definition:
Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements. Therefore, if
A and B are sets, then A and B are equal if and only if
∀ x(x ∈ A ↔ x ∈ B).
We write A = B if A and B are equal sets.

Definition:
The set A is a subset of B if and only if every element of A is also an element
of B.We use the notation A ⊆ B to indicate that A is a subset of the set B.

Examples:
 {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = {5, 4, 3, 2, 1} but {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ≠ {1, 2, 3, 4}
If A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, A is a subset of B
This is specified by A  B meaning that  x (x  A  x  B)
 2.1 Sets
A  B means “A is a subset of B.”
or, “B contains A.”
or, “every element of A is also in B.”
or, x ((x  A)  (x  B)).

Venn Diagram
B
U
For any set S, S  S (S S  S)
For any set S,   S (S   S)
Every non-empty set S, it has at least two subsets:
1)   S 2) S  S
 2.1 Sets

A  B means “A is a subset of B.”

A  B means “A is a superset of B.”

A = B if and only if A and B have exactly the same elements.

iff, A  B and B  A
iff, A  B and A  B
iff, x ((x  A)  (x  B)).
 2.1 Sets
Proper Subsets
 A  B means “A is a proper subset of B.”
• A  B, and A  B.
•x ((x  A)  (x  B))  x ((x  B)  (x  A))

B
U
 2.1 Sets
The difference between “subset” and “proper subset” is like
the difference between “less than or equal to” and “less than”
for numbers.
• {1,2,3}  {1,2,3,4,5}
• {1,2,3}  {1,2,3,4,5}
Examples:
•Let B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
•If A = {1, 2, 3}, A is not equal to B, and A is a subset of B
•A proper subset is written as A  B
 Sets may contain other sets as members:
A = {0, {a}, {b}, {a, b}} and B = {x I x is a subset of the set {a, b}}.
• Note that A = B, {a}  A , but a  A
 2.1 Sets
Quick examples:
 Is   {1,2,3}?
• Yes! x (x  )  (x  {1,2,3}) holds, because (x  ) is false.
 Is   {1,2,3}?
• NO
 Is   {1,2,3}?
• Yes
 Is   {,1,2,3}?
• Yes
 Is   {,1,2,3}?
• Yes
 Is {x}  {x}?
• No
 2.1 Sets
Cardinality of Set
If S is finite, then the cardinality of S is the number of distinct
elements in S.
The cardinality of S is denoted by |S|.
Examples:
If S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, Then |S| = 5
If S = {3,3,3,3,3}, Then |S| = 1
If S = , Then |S| = 0
If S = {, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}, Then |S| = 4
If S be the set of odd positive integers less than 10 Then
|S| = 5.
If S be the set of letters in the English alphabet Then |S| = 26
 2.1 Sets
Power Sets
 The power set of S is the set of the subsets of S.
(written as P(S))
 Given S = {0, 1, 2} . All the possible subsets of S?
P(S) = {, {0}, {l}, {2}, {0, 1}, {0, 2}, {l, 2}, {0, 1, 2}}
 Note that |S| = 3 and |P(S)| = 8
 If S has n elements then the power set of S has 2n
elements
 If S is a set, then the power set of S is
2S = { x : x  S }.
 If S = {a}, then P(S) =2S = {, {a}}.
 If S = {,{}}, then P(S) = 2S = {, {}, {{}}, {,{}}}.
 Fact: if S is finite, |P(S)| =|2S| = 2|S|. (if |S| = n, |2S| = 2n)
 2.1 Sets
Cartesian Product
 The Cartesian Product of two sets A and B is:
A x B = { < a, b > : a  A  b  B}

 Example: Given A = { a, b } and B = { 0, 1 }, what is

their Cartesian product?
C = A x B = { (a,0), (a,1), (b,0), (b,1) }
Example: What is the Cartesian product of:
A = { I , 2} and B = {a, b, c}
Solution: The Cartesian product A x B is:
A  B = {(1 , a), (1, b), (1 , c) , (2 , a), (2 , b), (2 , c) }.
Note that: A  B ≠ B  A
Since, B  A = {(a, I), (a, 2), (b, I), (b, 2), (c , 1), (c , 2)}

A1 x A2 x … x An = {<a1, a2,…, an>: a1  A1, a2  A2, …, an  An}

 2.1 Sets
Example: What is the Cartesian product A  B  C, where A

= {0, l}, B = { I, 2}, and C = {0, 1 , 2}?

Solution:
 A  B  C = {(0, 1 , 0) , (0 , I, I), (0 , 1, 2), (0 , 2 , 0), (0 , 2 , I), (0 , 2 , 2)

, (1 , 1 , 0) , (1 , 1 , 1), (1 , 1 , 2), (1, 2 , 0), (1 , 2 , 1), (1 , 2 , 2)}.

 2.1 Sets
Exercises

1. List the members of these sets.

 a) {x I x is a real number such that x 2 = I}

 b) {x I x is a positive integer less than 12}

 c) {x I x is the square of an integer and x < 100}

 d) {x I x is an integer such that x 2 = 2}

2. Use set builder notation to give a description of each of these sets.

 a) {0, 3, 6, 9, I2}

 b) {-3, -2, -I,0, I , 2, 3}

 c) {m, n, o, p}

3. Determine whether each of these pairs of sets are equal.

 a) {I, 3, 3, 3, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5}, {5, 3, I}

 b) {{I}}, {I, {I}}

 c) , {}

4. Suppose that A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {2, 6}, C = {4, 6}, and D = {4, 6, 8}. Determine which of

these sets are subsets of which other of these sets.

 2.1 Sets
Exercises
 2.1 Sets
Exercises
 2.1 Sets
Exercises
 Chapter 2.2

Set Operations
 2.2 Set Operations
Two sets can be combined in many different ways:
Definition: Union
The union of the sets A and B, denoted by A U B, is the set that
contains those elements that are either in A or in B, or in both.

B
A
A  B = { x : x  A v x  B}

 Examples:
• {1, 2, 3} U {3, 4, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
• {a, b} U {3, 4} = {a, b, 3, 4}
• {1, 2} U  = {1, 2}
 2.2 Set Operations
 Properties of the union operation

•AU=A Identity law

•AUU=U Domination law
•AUA=A Idempotent law
•AUB=BUA Commutative law
• A U (B U C) = (A U B) U C Associative law
 2.2 Set Operations
Intersection
 The intersection of the sets A and B, denoted by A  B, is
the set containing those elements in both A and B

B
A
A  B = { x : x  A  x  B}

 Examples:
• {1, 2, 3} ∩ {3, 4, 5} = {3}
• {a, b} ∩ {3, 4} = 
• {1, 2} ∩  = 
 2.2 Set Operations
 Properties of the intersection operation

•A∩U=A Identity law

•A∩= Domination law
•A∩A=A Idempotent law
•A∩B=B∩A Commutative law
• A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C Associative law
 2.2 Set Operations
Disjoint
 Formal definition for disjoint sets: two sets are disjoint if
their intersection is empty set
AB=

 Examples:
• {1, 2, 3} and {3, 4, 5} are not disjoint
• {a, b} and {3, 4} are disjoint
• {1, 2} and  are disjoint
 Their intersection is empty set
•  and  are disjoint!
 Their intersection is empty set
 2.2 Set Operations
Complement
• Let U be the universal set. The complement of the set A, denoted by A , is the
complement of A with respect to U.
• The complement of the set A is U - A.
The complement of a set A is:
A
A = { x : x  A} = A c A

Note that:

 = U and U = 

Properties of complement sets

(Ac)c = A Complementation law
A U Ac = U Complement law
A ∩ Ac =  Complement law
Example: Let U is the set of all positive integers
If A = {x| x > 10}, Then Ac = {l,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,l0}.
 2.2 Set Operations
Difference
 The difference of A and B, denoted by A - B, is the set containing
those elements that are in A but not in B.
The difference of two sets A and B is:
A-B={x:xAxB}
A-B=AB

U
 2.2 Set Operations
 Examples:

• {1, 2, 3} - {3, 4, 5} = {1, 2}

• {a, b} - {3, 4} = {a, b}
• {1, 2} -  = {1, 2}
 The difference of any set S with the empty set will be
the set S
• S -  = S , where S is any set
 2.2 Set Operations
symmetric difference
 The symmetric difference of two sets A and B is:
A  B = { x : (x  A  x  B) v (x  B  x  A)}
= (A - B) U (B - A)
= (A  B) – (A  B)
2.2 Set Operations
Set identities
 2.2 Set Operations
 How to prove a set identity?
 For example Prove that : (A U B) = A  B
 Four methods:
• Use the basic set identities
• Use membership tables
• Prove each set is a subset of each other
• Use set builder notation and logical equivalences
 2.2 Set Operations
1- By using the basic set identities

(A U B) = A U B

=AB

=AB
 2.2 Set Operations
2- Bu Using membership tables
 2.2 Set Operations
3- By using each set is a subset of each other

1. () (x  A U B)  (x  A U B)  (x  A and x  B)

 (x  A  B)

2. () (x  A  B)  (x  A and x  B)  (x  A U B)

 (x  A U B)
 2.2 Set Operations
4- By using set builder notation and logical equivalences

(A U B) = {x : (x  A v x  B)}
= {x : (x  A)  (x  B)}
= {x : (x  A)  (x  B)}
=AB
 2.2 Set Operations
Generalized Unions and Intersections
Let A, B, and C be sets then:
• A  B  C contains those elements that are in at least one of the sets
A, B, and C
• A  B  C contains those elements that are in all of A, B, and C.
 2.2 Set Operations
Example: Let A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}, B = {0, 1,2,3, 4}, and C = {0, 3,
6, 9}, determine the following combinations:
1. A  B  C
2. A  B  C

Solution:
1. A  B  C = {0, 1,2, 3,4, 6, 8, 9}.
2. A  B  C = {0}.
 2.2 Set Operations
Computer Representation of Sets
Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.
The bit string (of length |U| = 10) that represents the set
A = {1, 3, 5, 6, 9} has a one in the first, third, fifth, sixth, and
ninth position, and zero elsewhere.
It is 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0.
What bit strings represent the subset of:
1. All odd integers in U,
A= {I, 3, 5, 7, 9}, and the bit string is 10 1010 1010.
2. Integers not exceeding 5 in U

A= {l, 2, 3, 4, 5}, and the bit string is 11 1110 0000.

 2.2 Set Operations
Example: The bit strings for the sets {I, 2, 3, 4, 5} and {I, 3, 5,
7, 9} are 11 1110 0000 and 10 1010 1010, respectively.
Use bit strings to find the union and intersection of these sets.

Solution:
• The bit string for the union of these sets is:
11 1110 0000  10 1010 1010 = 11 1110 1010,
Corresponds to the set {l, 2, 3,4, 5, 7, 9}.

• The bit string for the intersection of these sets is:

11 11100000  10 1010 1010 = 10 1010 0000,
Corresponds to the set {I, 3, 5}.
 2.2 Set Operations
Exercises
1. Let A = { l , 2, 3,4, 5} and B = {0, 3, 6}. Find
a) A  B b) A  B c) A – B d) B - A

2. Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}. Find

b) A  B b) A  B c) A – B d) B – A

3. Find the sets A and B if A - B = {I, 5, 7, 8}, B - A = {2, l0}, and A  B = {3,
6,9}
4. Show that if A and B are sets, then
a) A - B = A  Bc b) (A  B)  (A  Bc)= A

5. Find the symmetric difference of:

a) { I , 3 , 5} and { I , 2, 3}.
b) the set of computer science majors at a school and the set of mathematics majors
at this school
 2.2 Set Operations
6. Let A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, B = {0, 1 , 2, 3 ,4,5, 6}, and C = {4, 5 , 6, 7, 8 ,
9, 10}. Find
a) A  B  C b) A  B  C c) (A  B)  C
d) (A  B)  C
7. What can you say about the sets A and B if we know that:
a) A  B=A b) A  B=A c) A – B = A
d) A  B= B  A e) A – B = B - A
8. Can you conclude that A = B if A, B, and C are sets such that:
a) A  C = B  C b) A  C = B  C
c) A  B = B  C and A  C = B  C
2.2 Set Operations