UNIT IV

Sampling:

Design and Procedures

09/03/2023 1
Unit-IV: Sampling

• Sampling and sampling distributions: Basic Concepts:

• Defining the Universe, Concepts of Statistical Population, Sample,
Characteristics of a good sample, Sampling errors, Non Sampling errors,
Methods to reduce the errors, Sample Size constraints, Non Response.
• Types of Sampling.
• Determining size of the sample – Practical considerations in sampling and
sample size, sample size determination. 

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 A sample is a subset of a larger
Sampling population of objects individuals,
households, businesses, organizations
and so forth.

Population Sampling enables researchers to make

estimates of some unknown
characteristics of the population in
question.
Sample
A finite group is called population
whereas a non-finite (infinite) group
is called universe

A census is an investigation of all the

individual elements of a population
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 Selecting samples
Population, sample and individual cases

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Figure 7.1 Population, sample and individual cases

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 Population, sample and individual cases

• The basic idea of sampling is that by selecting some of the elements in a

population, we may draw conclusions about the entire population.
• A population element is the individual participant or object on which the measurement is
taken. It is the unit of study. It may be a person but it could also be any object of interest.
• A population is the total collection of elements about which we wish to make some
inferences.
• A census is a count of all the elements in a population.

• A sample frame is the listing of all population elements from which the sample will be
drawn.
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MBA

6
Parameters and statistics:

• We can describe samples and populations by using measures such as the

mean, median, mode and standard deviation.
• When these terms describe the characteristics of a population, they are called
parameters.
• When they describe the characteristics of a sample, they are called statistics.
• A parameter is a characteristic of a population and a statistic is a
characteristic of a sample.

7
• Since samples are subsets of population statistics provide estimates of the
parameters. That is, when the parameters are unknown, they are estimated
from the values of the statistics.

• In general, we use Greek or capital letters for population parameters and

lower case Roman letters to denote sample statistics.
• [N, μ, σ, are the standard symbols for the size, mean, S.D, of the population.
n, x, s, are the standard symbol for the size, mean, s.d of sample
respectively].

8
Sample Vs. Census
 Reasons for Sampling
Budget and time Constraints (in case of large populations)

High degree of accuracy and reliability (if sample is representative of population)

Sampling may sometimes produce more accurate results than taking a census as in the
latter, there are more risks for making interviewer and other errors due to the high
volume of persons contacted and the number of census takers, some of whom may not
be well-trained

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Reasons for selecting a sample:

• Sampling is inevitable in the following situations:

1. Complete enumerations are practically impossible when the population is
infinite.
2. When the results are required in a short time.
3. When the area of the survey is wide.
4. When resources for the survey are limited particularly in respect of money and
trained persons.

11
Advantages of Sampling:

There are many advantages of sampling methods over census

method. They are as follows:
1. Sampling saves time and labour.
2. It results in reduction of cost in terms of money and manhour.
3. Sampling ends up with greater accuracy of results.
4. It has greater scope.
5. It has greater adaptability.
6. If the population is too large, or hypothetical or destroyable
sampling is the only method to be used.
12
Why Sample?

Availability of
Lower cost
elements
Sampling
provides
Greater speed Greater
accuracy

09/03/2023 14-13
 The need to sample

Sampling- a valid alternative to a census when

• A survey of the entire population is impracticable

• Budget constraints restrict data collection

• Time constraints restrict data collection

• Results from data collection are needed quickly

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What is a Valid Sample?

Accurate Precise

09/03/2023 14-15
 What is a Valid Sample?

• The ultimate test of a sample design is how well it represents the characteristics of
the population it purports to represent. In measurement terms, the sample must be
valid.

• Validity of a sample depends on two considerations: accuracy and precision.

• Accuracy is the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. When the sample is drawn
properly.
• Precision of estimate is the second criterion of a good sample design.

• Precision is measured by the standard error of estimate, a type of standard deviation

measurement. The smaller the standard error of the estimate, the higher is the precision of the
sample.
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The Sampling Process
Plan procedure for
selecting sampling units

Determine if a probability
3 or non-probability sampling Determine sample size 5
method will be chosen

2 Select a Select actual sampling units 6

Sampling Frame

Define the Target

1 Conduct fieldwork 7
population
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 Defining the Target Population
The target population is that complete group whose relevant characteristics are to be
determined through the sampling

A target population may be, for example, all faculty members in the Department of
Management Sciences in the NITR/AIMA network, all housewives in Rourkela, all
engineering students in Rourkela, and all professors in India.

The target group should be clearly delineated if possible, for example, do all pre-college
students include only primary and secondary students or also students in other specialized
educational institutions?

09/03/2023 18
Define the Target Population

The target population is the collection of elements or objects that possess the
information sought by the researcher and about which inferences are to be
made.
The target population should be defined in terms of elements, sampling units,
extent, and time.

• An element is the object about which or from which the information is

desired, e.g., the respondent.
• A sampling unit is an element, or a unit containing the element, that is
available for selection at some stage of the sampling process.
• Extent refers to the geographical boundaries.
• Time is the time period under consideration.
 The Sampling Frame
 The sampling frame is a list of all those population elements that will be used in the sample

 Examples of sampling frames are a student telephone directory (for the student population), the list of
companies on the stock exchange, the directory of medical doctors and specialists, the yellow pages (for
businesses)

 Often, the list does not include the entire population. The discrepancy is often a source of error
associated with the selection of the sample (sampling frame error)

 Information relating to sampling frames can be obtained from commercial organizations

09/03/2023 20
 Sampling Units

The sampling unit is a single element – or group of elements – subject to

selection in a sample. Examples:

 Every student at NITRIS whose first name begins with the letter “S”

 All child passengers under 18 years of age who are traveling in a train from
destination X to destination Y
 All houses in different sectors of Rourkela.
09/03/2023 21
Sampling errors and Non-sampling errors

The two types of errors in a sample survey are sampling errors and no – sampling
errors.
1. Sampling errors:
Although a sample is a part of the population, it cannot be expected generally to
supply full information about the population.
So there may be in most cases difference between statistics and parameters. The
discrepancy between a parameter and its estimate due to sampling process is
known as sampling error.
2. Non-sampling errors:
In all surveys some errors may occur during collection of actual information.
These errors are called Non-sampling errors.
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Source: https://www.geopoll.com/blog/sample-frame-sample-error-research/

23
 Graphical Depiction of Sampling Errors

Respondents
Planned (actual
Sampling Frame Sample sample)

Non-Response Error
Sampling Frame Error

Random Sampling Error

Total Population
09/03/2023 24
29 August 2005 25
Sample Sizes Used in Marketing Research Studies
Sample size
Choice of sample size is influenced by

• Confidence needed in the data

• Margin of error that can be tolerated
• Margin of error (also called The confidence interval )
• Types of analyses to be undertaken
• Size of the sample population and distribution
Important qualitative factors in determining the sample
size are:

• The nature of the research

• The number of variables
• The nature of the analysis
• Sample sizes used in similar studies
• Completion rates
• Resource constraints
Sample Size Determination
• Sample size is determined based on two steps
• 1. Calculate the sample size for infinite population
• 2. Adjust the sample size to required population

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1. Calculate the sample size for infinite population

• Formula: S=

• S = Sample size for infinite population

• Z= z score
• P = population proportion assumed to
be 50% = 0.5

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Margin of error
• Margin of error is a small amount that is allowed for in case of mis
calculations or change of circumstances.
• Generally Margin of error as 5%
• M=0.05

31
 • So sample size is 384

29 August 2005 32
 2. Adjust the sample size to required
population
• For example, if we want to calculate adjusted sample
size to 1,00,000

• Then Adjusted sample size

= (S)/[1+[(S-1)/Population]

= 384.16/1+[(384.16 -1)/1,00,000]
=382.69
383

29 August 2005 33
 Classification of Sampling Techniques
Fig. 11.2
Sampling Techniques

Nonprobability Probability
Sampling Techniques Sampling Techniques

Convenience Judgmental Quota Snowball

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling

Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster Other Sampling

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling Techniques
 Probability and
Non-Probability Sampling
Probability Sampling – Every element in the population under
study has a non-zero probability of selection to a sample, and
every member of the population has an equal probability of
being selected

Non-Probability Sampling – An arbitrary means of selecting

sampling units based on subjective considerations, such as
personal judgment or convenience. It is less preferred to
probability sampling

36
Non-Probability Sampling

37
 Non-Probability Sampling (1)
Convenience Sampling – This is a sampling technique which selects those
sampling units most conveniently available at a certain point in, or over a period,
of time

 Major advantages of convenience sampling is that is quick, convenient and economical; a

major disadvantage is that the sample may not be representative

 Convenience sampling is best used for the purpose of exploratory research and
supplemented subsequently with probability sampling

38
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample of
convenient elements. Often, respondents are selected
because they happen to be in the right place at the right
time.

• Use of students, and members of social organizations

• Mall intercept interviews without qualifying the
respondents
• “People on the street” interviews
 A Graphical Illustration of Convenience
Sampling
Fig. 11.3 11.3
A B C D E

1 6 11 21
Group D happens to
16
assemble at a
convenient time and
2 7 12 17 22 place. So all the
elements in this Group
are selected. The
3 8 13 18 23
resulting sample
consists of elements
4 9 14 24
16, 17, 18, 19 and 20.
19
Note, no elements are
selected from group A,
5 10 15 20 25 B, C and E.
Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience sampling
in which the population elements are selected based on
the judgment of the researcher.

• Test markets
• Purchase engineers selected in industrial marketing
research
• Expert witnesses used in court
 Judgment (purposive) Sampling – This is a sampling technique in which the
business researcher selects the sample based on judgment about some
appropriate characteristic of the sample members

 Example : Selection of certain voting districts which serve as indicators

for the national voting trend

42
Graphical Illustration of
Judgmental Sampling
Fig. 11.3

A B C D E

1 6 16 21 The researcher considers

11
groups B, C and E to be
typical and convenient.
2 7 12 17 22 Within each of these
groups one or two
elements are selected
3 8 13 18 23 based on typicality and
convenience. The
resulting sample consists
4 9 14 19 24 of elements 8, 10, 11, 13,
and 24. Note, no elements
are selected
5 10 15 20 25 from groups A and D.
 Quota Sampling
Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted judgmental sampling.

• The first stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas, of

population elements.
• In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on convenience or
judgment.

Control Population Sample

Variable composition composition

Sex Percentage Percentage Number

Male 48 48 480

Female 52 52 520
____ ____ ____
100 100 1000
 MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr.
29 August 2005 45
Aurangzeb Z. Khan
Quota Sampling – This is a sampling technique in which the
business researcher ensures that certain characteristics of a
population are represented in the sample to an extent which is
he or she desires

46
Quota Sampling
• Divide the population into specific groups.
• Calculate quota for each group based on relevant and available data
• Collect data from each quota
 Non-Probability Sampling (3b)
Quota Sampling has advantages and disadvantages:

 Advantages include the speed of data collection, less cost, the element of convenience, and
representativeness (if the subgroups in the sample are selected properly)

 Disadvantages include the element of subjectivity (convenience sampling rather than

probability-based which leads to improper selection of sampling units)

48
A Graphical Illustration of Quota Sampling
Fig. 11.3
A B C D E

A quota of one element

1 6 11 16 21 from each group, A to
E, is imposed. Within
each group, one
2 7 12 17 22 element is selected
based on judgment or
convenience. The
3 8 13 18 23
resulting sample
consists of elements 3,
6, 13, 20 and 22. Note,
4 9 14 19 24
one element is selected
from each column or
5 10 15 25
group.
20
Snowball Sampling

In snowball sampling, an initial group of

respondents is selected, usually at random.

• After being interviewed, these respondents are asked

to identify others who belong to the target population
of interest.

• Subsequent respondents are selected based on the

referrals.
 Non-Probability Sampling (4)
 Snowball Sampling – This is a sampling technique in which individuals or organizations are
selected first by probability methods, and then additional respondents are identified based on
information provided by the first group of respondents

 Example: Through a sample of 500 individuals, 20 scuba-diving enthusiasts are identified

which, in turn, identify a number of other scuba-divers

 The advantage of snowball sampling is that smaller sample sizes and costs are necessary; a
major disadvantage is that the second group of respondents suggested by the first group may
be very similar and not representative of the population with that characteristic

51
Snowball sampling
• Make contact with one or two cases in the population.
• Ask these cases to identify further cases.
• Ask these new case to identify further new cases.
• Stop when either no new cases are given or the sample is large
enough.
A Graphical Illustration of Snowball
Sampling
Random SelectionReferrals

A B C D E

1 6 11 16 21

Elements 2 and 9 are selected

randomly from groups A and B.
2 7 12 17 22
Element 2 refers elements 12 and
13. Element 9 refers
element 18. The resulting sample
3 8 13 18 23
consists of elements 2, 9, 12, 13,
and 18. Note, there are no
elements from group E.
4 9 14 19 24

5 10 15 20 25
29 August 2005 54
Probability Sampling
 Probability Sampling (1)
Simple Random Sampling – This is a technique which ensures that
each element in the population has an equal chance of being selected
for the sample

 Example: Choosing raffle tickets from a drum, computer-generated selections,

random-digit telephone dialing

 The major advantage of simple random sampling is its simplicity

57
Simple Random Sampling

• Each element in the population has a known

and equal probability of selection.

• Each possible sample of a given size (n) has a

known and equal probability of being the
sample actually selected.

• This implies that every element is selected

independently of every other element.
Simple random sampling
• Number each of the cases in your sampling frame with a unique
number.
• Select cases using random numbers until, actual sample size is
reached.
• Computer aided telephone interviewing (CATI) software
Simple Random
Disadvantages
Advantages
• Requires
Easy to implement
list of population
with random
elements
dialing
• Time consuming
• Uses larger sample sizes
• High cost

60
A Graphical Illustration of
Simple Random Sampling
Fig. 11.4
A B C D E

1 6 11 16 21

2 7 12 17 22 Select five random

numbers from 1 to 25.
The resulting sample
3 8 13 18 23 consists of population
elements 3, 7, 9, 16, and
24. Note, there is no
element from Group C.
4 9 14 19 24

5 10 15 20 25
 Systematic Sampling
• The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting
point and then picking every ith element in succession
from the sampling frame.

• The sampling interval, i, is determined by dividing the

population size N by the sample size n and rounding to
the nearest integer.

• When the ordering of the elements is related to the

characteristic of interest, systematic sampling increases
the representativeness of the sample.
 Systematic Random Sampling

• Number each of the cases in your sampling frame with a

unique number.
• Select the first case using a random number
• Calculate the sampling fraction
• Select subsequent cases systematically using the
sampling fraction to determine the frequency of
selection.
• Sampling fraction = actual sample size/ total population
A Graphical Illustration of
Systematic Sampling
Fig. 11.4
A B C D E

1 6 11 16 21

Select a random number

2 7 12 17 22 between 1 and 5, say 2.
The resulting sample consists
of population 2,
3 8 13 18 23 (2+5=) 7, (2+5x2=) 12,
(2+5x3=)17, and (2+5x4=) 22.
Note, all the elements are
selected from a single row.
4 9 14 19 24

5 10 15 20 25
Stratified Sampling
• The elements within a stratum should be as
homogeneous as possible, but the elements in
different strata should be as heterogeneous as
possible.

• The stratification variables should also be closely

related to the characteristic of interest.

• Finally, the variables should decrease the cost of

the stratification process by being easy to measure
and apply.
29 August 2005 68
Stratified Sampling

• In stratified sampling, the size of the sample

drawn from each stratum is proportionate to the
relative size of that stratum in the total population.
Stratified random sampling
• Choose the stratification variable or variables
• Divide the sampling frame into the discrete strata.
• Number each of the cases within each stratum with a unique number
• Select your sample using either simple random or systematic random
sampling
• Example
• The company has 800 female employees and 200 male
employees. You want to ensure that the sample reflects the
gender balance of the company, so you sort the population
into two strata based on gender. Then you use random
sampling on each group, selecting 80 women and 20 men,
which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.

71
A Graphical Illustration of
Stratified Sampling
Fig. 11.4
A B C D E

1 6 11 16 21
Randomly select a number
from 1 to 5
2 7 12 17 22 for each stratum, A to E. The
resulting
sample consists of population
3 8 13 18 23 elements
4, 7, 13, 19 and 21. Note, one
element
is selected from each column.
4 9 14 19 24

5 10 15 20 25
Cluster Sampling
• Cluster sampling is a sampling plan used when
mutually homogeneous yet internally
heterogeneous groupings are evident in a statistical
population.

• In this sampling plan, the total population is divided

into these groups and a simple random sample of the
groups is selected.
• Example
• The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all
with roughly the same number of employees in similar
roles/different role).
• You don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to collect
your data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices
– these are your clusters.

74
Cluster Sampling

• Elements within a cluster should be as

heterogeneous as possible, but clusters themselves
should be as homogeneous as possible.

• Ideally, each cluster should be a small-scale

representation of the population.
A Graphical Illustration of
Cluster Sampling (2-Stage)
Fig. 11.4
A B C D E

1 6 11 16 21
Randomly select 3 clusters, B,
D and E.
2 12 17 22
Within each cluster, randomly
7
select one
or two elements. The resulting
sample
3 8 13 18 23 consists of population
elements 7, 18, 20, 21, and 23.
Note, no elements are
4 9 14 19 24 selected from clusters A and C.

5 10 15 20 25
Stratified and Cluster Sampling
Stratified Cluster
• Population divided into • Population divided into
few subgroups many subgroups
• Homogeneity within • Heterogeneity within
subgroups subgroups
• Heterogeneity between • Homogeneity between
subgroups subgroups
• Choice of elements from • Random choice of
within each subgroup subgroups

78
Issues in Sample Design and Selection (1)

Accuracy – Samples should be representative of the target

population (less accuracy is required for exploratory research
than for conclusive research projects)

Resources – Time, money and individual or institutional

capacity are very important considerations due to the
limitation on them. Often, these resources must be “traded”
against accuracy

80
Issues in Sample Design and Selection (2)
Availability of Information – Often information on potential sample
participants in the form of lists, directories etc. is unavailable
(especially in developing countries) which makes some sampling
techniques (e.g. systematic sampling) impossible to undertake

Geographical Considerations – The number and dispersion of

population elements may determine the sampling technique used
(e.g. cluster sampling)

Statistical Analysis – This should be performed only on samples

which have been created through probability sampling (i.e. not
probability sampling)

81
 Strengths and Weaknesses of
Basic Sampling Techniques
Table 11.4
Technique Strengths Weaknesses
Nonprobability Sampling Least expensive, least Selection bias, sample not
Convenience sampling time-consuming, most representative, not recommended for
convenient descriptive or causal research
Judgmental sampling Low cost, convenient, Does not allow generalization,
not time-consuming subjective
Quota sampling Sample can be controlled Selection bias, no assurance of
for certain characteristics representativeness
Snowball sampling Can estimate rare Time-consuming
characteristics

Probability sampling Easily understood, Difficult to construct sampling

Simple random sampling results projectable frame, expensive, lower precision,
(SRS) no assurance of representativeness
Systematic sampling Can increase Can decrease representativeness
representativeness,
easier to implement than
SRS, sampling frame not
necessary
Stratified sampling Include all important Difficult to select relevant
subpopulations, stratification variables, not feasible to
precision stratify on many variables, expensive
Cluster sampling Easy to implement, cost Imprecise, difficult to compute and
effective interpret results
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