CHEMISTRY

EDEXCEL
MODULE 2
 Electrons repel to a
Valence Shell Electron point of maximum

SHAPES OF MOLECULES
Pair Repulsion Theory separation to give
Or VSEPR minimum repulsion

Lone Pair: Lone Pair > Lone pair: Bond Pair > Bond Pair: Bond Pair
Allotrope: different
forms of the same
element in the same
state
CARBON STRUCTURES
• Carbon has 3 allotropes: • There are delocalised electrons – can conduct
electricity
• Graphite, Diamond & Fullerenes
• Less dense than diamond but strong & lightweight
• Strong covalent bonds – high melting point
• Diamond: • Insoluble in all solvents
• Each carbon atom is covalently bonded with sigma
bonds to four other carbon atoms
• Fullerenes:
• This creates a tetrahedral shape – crystal lattice
• Can form hollow balls or tubes
structure
• Each carbon bonds to 3 others
• Properties:
• • There are delocalised electrons
High melting point (3700K)
• • Can conduct electricity
Extremely hard
• Vibrations can travel through the lattice – it’s a good • They’re nanoparticles
thermal conductor • Buckminsterfullerene C60 sphere shaped
• Can’t conduct electricity • Many are soluble in organic solvents & form bright
• Won’t dissolve in any solvent colours
• Can be used to deliver drugs to specific cells of the
• Graphite: body
• Carbon atoms arranged in sheets of flat hexagons
• The 4th outer electron of each carbon atom is • Nanotube:
delocalised • Single layer of graphite rolled into a tube
• Properties: • They can conduct electricity
• Weak bonds between layers – so sheets slide over each
other – used as a dry lubricant
 Electronegativity
measured on the Pauling
scale F = 4 POLAR BONDS

E.g. CsF – Large Partially Al3+ - Small & High Charge Very polar due to F E.g. H - H
Cation & Small Covalent So high charge density being electronegative.
Anion E- in bond shared
unevenly

• Electronegativity – the ability to attract the bonding electrons in a covalent bond

e-s spend most of their time near F

• F most electronegative & Cs least electronegative

• Not all molecules with polar bonds are polar molecules

• Trichloromethane - Polar
• But, Tetrachloromethane – not Polar

• Stronger Bonds = Shorter Bonds

 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

• VdW – London Forces

• Causes all atoms & molecules to be attracted to each other
• When e-s are on one side of an atom they form a temporary dipole
• This dipole causes another dipole in the neighbouring atom
• Larger SA/molecule/chain length = Stronger

• Dipole – Dipole
• Charges on polar molecules cause weak electrostatic attractions between molecules

• H-Bonding
• Requires hydrogen covalently bonded to N, O, F
• NOF are very electronegative, they attract the electrons from H
• Bond is polarised & H has a high charge density
• H atoms form weak bonds with lone pairs of electrons on NOF of other molecules

VdW < Dipole - Dipole < H-Bonding

Like usually dissolves like

SOLUBILITY
• To dissolve:
• Bonds in substance have to break
• Bonds in solvent have to break
• New bonds have to from between substance & solvent

• Non-polar solvents will dissolve non-polar solutes

• Both have VdW forces – so form similar bonds with each other

• Polar solvents (e.g. Water) will dissolve ionic substances

• Ions are attracted to oppositely charged ends of water
• Ions pulled away from lattice by H 2O, called hydration
• Some ionic substance don’t dissolve because the bonding is too strong
• Not all molecules with polar bonds will dissolve, halogenoalkanes don’t
• Bond between C-X is weaker than O-H in water

• Alcohols also dissolve in polar solvents

• Polar O-H bond in an alcohol attracted to O-H in water
• H bonds form between lone pair on oxygen atoms and the hydrogen atoms
• Longer carbon chain on alcohol = less soluble
 REDOX

• Oxidation – lose e-
• Oxidising Agents – gain e- & gets reduced
• Reduction – gain e-
• Reducing Agents – lose e- & gets oxidised

• Rules:
• Group 1 = +1
• Group 2 = +2
• Hydrogen = +1 (-1 in Metal Hydrides)
• Fluorine = -1
• Oxygen = -2 (-1 in Peroxides)
• Chlorine = -1 ( not in F & O2)

• Balancing Redox Equation:

• Uncombined Element = 0 e.g. Cl2 • Balance O2 by adding H2O
• Balance H2 by adding H+
• Balance charge add e-
 GROUP 2
• With water:
• Produces a hydroxide e.g. Mg(OH)2
• Reacts more quickly down group due to low IE
• MO(s) + H2O(l)  M(OH)2(aq)
Reaction with water
• Burn in oxygen:
• Produces a oxide e.g. MgO • M(OH)2(S) + H2O  M2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

• MO(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

Reaction with acid
• React with chlorine:
• E.g. MgCl2 forms – white solid • M(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq)  MCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

• Oxides & Hydroxides are bases:

• Oxides react with water producing metal hydroxides
• The hydroxide ions make these solutions strongly alkaline
• MgO reacts slowly & it’s hydroxide isn’t very soluble
• Oxides form more strong alkaline solutions down the group due to the hydroxides being more soluble

• Hydroxide more soluble down group 2

• Sulphate less soluble down group 2 (Barium Sulphate is insoluble)
 FLAME TESTS
• Lithium – Red

• Use Nichrome wire

• Sodium – Golden-Yellow
• Clean wire with HCl
• Dip into compound
• Potassium – Lilac • Hold it over non-luminous flame

• Calcium – Brick Red

• Strontium – Crimson Red

Electron Transition:
• Barium – Pale Green
Due to electrons absorbing
• Copper – Blue/green energy and moving to a higher energy
level. They emit energy (in the form of
light) when they fall back down
• Caesium – Blue

• Rubidium - Red
 HEATING NO3’S & CO3’S

• Group 1 Nitrates: • Group 1 Carbonates are too

thermally stable to decompose
• Except Li2CO3
• This forms Li2O & CO2
• 2KNO3 = 2KNO2 + O2

• Group 2 Carbonates:

• CaCO3 = CaO + CO2

• Group 2 Nitrates:

• 2Ca(NO3)2 = 2CaO + 4NO2 + O2

 THERMAL STABILITY CO3 & NO3

• More thermally stable down group 2

• E- less distorted
• Larger ionic radius
• Smaller Cation = More Polarising

E-s are pulled

towards the cation
breaking the O-C
bond
 THE HALOGENS
• Electronegativity & Reactivity Decreases down the Group
• Melting & Boiling Points Increase down the Group

• Disproportionation with Alkalis: Colour in Water Colour in Hexane

• Cold:
Chlorine Virtually Colourless Virtually Colourless
X2 + 2NaOH  NaXO + NaX + H2O
X2 + 2OH-  XO- + X- + H2O Bromine Yellow/Orange Orange/Red
• Hot: Iodine Brown Pink/Violet
3X2 + 6NaOH  NaXO3 + 5NaX + 3H2O
3X2 + 6OH-  XO3- + 5X- + 3H2O

• Oxidise Metals:
• F2 & Cl2 are the strongest oxidising agents so we get oxidise Fe  Fe3+
• Br2 is slightly weaker oxidising agent so we get Fe2+ & Fe3+
• I2 is the weakest so only Fe2+ forms
• Oxidise Non-Metals:
• e.g. 4Cl2 + S8  4S2Cl2
 THE HALIDES
• Reducing power increases down the group – by losing an electron

• KF/KCl with H2SO4: • Reaction with Silver Nitrate (AgNO3):

Forms KHSO4(s) & HF/HCl(g) • Fluoride – No Precipitate
• Chloride – White Precipitate - Dissolves in Dilute NH 3(aq)
• KBr with H2SO4:
• Bromide – Cream Precipitate – Dissolves in Concentrated
Forms KHSO4(s) & HBr(g) NH3(aq)
HBr then reacts with H2SO4 – Forms Br2(g), SO2(g), H2O(l) • Iodide – Yellow Precipitate – Insoluble in NH 3(aq)
• KI with H2SO4: • Silver Halides React with Sunlight:
Forms KHSO4(s) & HI(g) • 2AgBr  2Ag + Br2
HI then reacts with H2SO4 – Forms I2(g), SO2(g), H2O(l)
HI then reacts with SO2 – Forms H2S(g), I2(s), H2O(l)
Purple

• Hydrogen Halides are Acidic Gases:

• Reacts with NH3(g) forming white fumes
• Blue Litmus  Red

• Halide Ions are Displaced by more Reactive Halogens:

Cl2(aq) + 2Br-(aq)  2Cl-(aq) + Br2(aq)
Br2(aq) + 2I-(aq)  2Br-(aq) + I2(aq)
 INDICATORS

• Litmus paper: • Lead Acetate:

• Red to Blue • H2S White to Black
Acid Alkali

• Methyl Orange: • K2Cr2O7:

• Yellow to Red • SO2 Orange to Green
Alkali Acid

• Phenolphthalein: • Ammonia:
• Hydrogen Halide White Smoke
• Colourless to Pink/Red
Acid Alkali

• Starch:
• Black to Colourless
I2 I2 + S2O32-
 KINETICS

• Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution:
• When Temp is Increased:
Total area under
• Particles have more energy
curve = number of
• Greater number of particles have the Ea
particles
• More successful collisions occur per cm3
• Faster rate of reaction

These particles have

sufficient Ea to react

Catalyst provides 10oC temp increase =

alternative route for a 2 x RoR
reaction with a lower
Ea.
 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA
• Reversible Reactions can Reach Dynamic Equilibrium:
H2(g) + I2(g)  2HI(g)
• Concentration:
• Increase reactant = more product
• Increase product = more reactant
• Pressure:
• Increasing it shifts to side with fewer gas molecules
• Decreasing it shifts to the side with more gas molecules
• Temperature:
• Increasing temp = shifts in the endothermic direction
• Decreasing temp = shifts in the exothermic direction

Decrease Temperature
Increase Pressure
Increase Conc of Reactants

2SO2(g) + O2(g)  2SO3(g) -197 kJmol-1

Increase Conc of Products
Increase Temperature
 ALCOHOLS
• 1o – Functional group attached to a carbon which has 1 carbon attached to it – Least Reactive
• 2o - Functional group attached to a carbon which has 2 carbons attached to it
• 3o - Functional group attached to a carbon which has 3 carbons attached to it – Most reactive

• Producing Halogenoalkanes using Phosphorus Halides:

• 3ROH + PX3  3RX + H3PO3 PI3 & PBr3 are made in situ using Red
Phosphorus

• Properties:
• Liquid at room temp – due to H bonds between molecules
• Low Volatility – due to H bonding
• Soluble in H2O – due to H bonding – but less soluble as chain length increases
• Alcohols & Na  Alkoxides:
• Longer chain length = less reactive
• 2CH4O + 2Na  2CH3CH2O- Na+ + H2
Methanol Sodium Methoxide

• Reaction with PCl5 – test for OH group:

• Misty white fumes given off when NH3(g) added
• C2H5OH(aq) + PCl5(s)  C2H5Cl(aq) + HCl(g) + POCl3(aq)
• HCl(g) + NH3(g)  NH4Cl
 OXIDATION OF AN ALCOHOL
• Partial oxidation – limited Na2Cr2O7 & dilute H2SO4
• Reflux – Conc H2SO4 & excess Na2Cr2O7
• Colour changes from orange to green

• Reflux: LiAlH4 to go from Acid to 1o

• Allows reactions to happen at highest temperature without or Aldehyde
loss of product or reactants
• Water goes in at bottom to ensure constant cooling

• Separation of Products:
• Distillation

• Alcohol into Halogenoalkanes:

• Add PCl5
• Reflux + NaBr +50% H2SO4
• I2 & moist red phosphorus  Iodoalkanes, react with
alcohol
 PREPARATION OF ETHANAL BY
OXIDATION OF ETHANOL
• 50cm3 H2O in 500cm3 flask, add 17cm3 of conc H2SO4 & anti-bumping granules

• Put flask in distillation apparatus. Still head has tap funnel & receiving flask in ice-
bath (ethanal low B point – avoid evap)

• Dissolve 50g of Na2Cr2O7 in 50cm3 H2O in small beaker. Add 40cm3 of ethanol. Stir
thoroughly

• Heat flask until boils, remove heat. Run alcohol/dichromate solution slowly into
flask, mixture becomes green, takes 20 mins. Maintain gentle boiling

• Aqueous solution of ethanal collects in receiver.

Uses:
• Solvents
•
•
Refrigerants
Pesticides HALOGENOALKANES
• Fire Extinguishers

• Reaction with KOH(aq):

• Heat under reflux with KOH(aq) giving an alcohol

• Reaction with KOH in ethanolic solution:

• Eliminates hydrogen halide forming alkene

• Reaction with Conc. Ammonia in Ethanol:

• Heat & Pressure with Conc NH3 to produce amines – Nucleophilic Addition

• Preparation of 1-Bromobutane:
• 30cm3 of H2O, 35g NaBr, 25cm3 of Butan-1-ol
• Add 25cm3 of conc H2SO4 drop by drop occasionally cool
• Reflux for 45 mins
• Distil off crude 1-bromobutane (about 30cm3)
• Shake distillate with water in separating funnel and run off lower layer of 1-bromobutane
• Add 1-bromobutane back into funnel & add half it’s vol of HCl
• Shake with Na2CO3 releasing pressure
• Run off lower layer and add granular anhydrous CaCl2, swirl until clear
• Filter into clean, dry flask and distil it. Collect fractions between 99-102 oC
 NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION

• SN2 – All 1o halogenoalkanes react this way

• SN1 – All 3o halogenoalkanes react this way

 TYPES OF REACTION

• Addition – Joining 2+ molecules together forming a larger molecule

• Polymerisation – joining monomers together forming a polymer
• Elimination – small group of atoms breaks away from a larger molecule
• Substitution – one species is replaced by another
• Hydrolysis – splitting of a molecule by adding H+ & OH- from H2O
• Oxidation – reaction in which an atom loses electrons
• Reduction – reaction in which an atom gains electrons
• Redox - reaction in which electrons are transferred between 2 species

• Homolytic Fission: • Electrophiles are electron pair acceptors

• X-Y  Xo + Yo • They are +ve
• Forms Free-Radicals
• Nucleophiles are electron pair donors
• Heterolytic Fission: • They are –ve
• X-Y  X + Y
+ -

• Forms cation & anion

 OZONE – O3
UV Radiation
Nitric Oxide breaks down Ozone too
NO
• O2 + hv  O + O
• O + O 2  O3

• O2 + O  O 3

• CCl3F  CCl2F + Cl
• Cl + O3  O2 + ClO
• ClO + O3  2O2 + Cl

• 2O3  3O2 Cl is the catalyst

 INSTRUMENTAL ANALYSIS

• Vapourisation – Ionisation – Acceleration – Deflection – Detection

• Organic Molecule Detection:

• E.g. C2H5OH can be vapourised & ionised – C2H5OH+ - appears at 46m/e (parent ion peak)
• When fragmented charges allow us to be what group is present

• IR Spectroscopy:
• All bonds stretch and bend naturally
• Polar bonds change polarity and absorb that frequency of IR as they vibrate
• O–H 3600 wavenumber/cm-1 smooth u curve
• C=O 1740 wavenumber/cm-1 steep v curve Aldehydes
• O–H 3500 wavenumber/cm-1 smoother than O – H
• C=O 1690 wavenumber/cm-1 steep v curve Ketones
• C=O 1710 wavenumber/cm-1 Carboxylic Acid