Signals and Systems

Chapter 1
Dr. Kumbirayi Nyachionjeka
University of Botswana
 Size of Signal-Energy Signal
• Signal: is a set of data or information collected
over time.

• If the signal goes to zero as time goes to

infinity, then the signal is measured by its
energy Ex:
∞
𝐸 𝑥 = ∫ |𝑥 (𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡
2

−∞

Example: Find the energy of the signal x(t) = 2e-3t t  0

 Signals and Systems Outline

• Size of a Signal
• Useful Signal Operations
• Classification of Signals
• Signal Models
• Classification of Systems
• System Model: Input-Output Description
 Size of Signal-Power Signal

If the signal is periodic or the amplitude of x(t)

does not  0 when t  ", need to measure
power Px instead:
𝑇/2
1
𝑃 𝑥 = lim ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡
2

𝑇 → ∞ 𝑇 −𝑇 /2

Example: Find the power of the signal x(t) = Acos(10πt)

 Useful Signal Operations

• Time Delay
• Times Scaling
• Time Reversal
 Time Delay

Signal x(t)

x(t) delayed by time  :

(t) = x (t – )

x(t) advanced by time  :

(t) = x (t + )
 Time Delay Example
Find x(t-2) and x(t+2) for the signal
x(t)

t
1 4
 Time Scaling

x(t) compressed in time

by a factor of 2:

(t) = x (2t)
x(t) expanded in time
(by a factor of 2):

(t) = x (t/2)
Same as recording played back at twice and half the speed
respectively
 Time Scaling Example
Find x(2t) and x(t/2) for the signal
x(t)

t
1 4
 Time Reversal
Signal may be reflected about the vertical axis (i.e. time reversed):

(t) = x (-t)
 Example
x(t)
Find the signal x(2t - 6)
2

t
can be obtained in two ways; 1 4

• Delay x(t) by 6 to obtain x(t - 6), and then time-compress this

signal by factor 2 (replace t with 2t) to obtain x(2t - 6).

• Alternately, time-compress x(t) by factor 2 to obtain x(2t), then

delay this signal by 3 (replace t with t – 3 x(2(t-3)), to obtain
x(2t - 6). x(2t-6)

t
3.5 5
 Continuous vs Discrete

Continuous-time

Discrete-time
 Signal Classification
Signals may be classified into:
1. Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
2. Analog and digital signals
3. Periodic and aperiodic signals
4. Energy and power signals
5. Deterministic and probabilistic signals
6. Causal and non-causal
7. Even and Odd signals
 Analog vs Digital
Analog, continuous Digital, continuous

Analog, discrete
Digital, discrete
 Periodic vs Aperiodic
A signal x(t) is said to be periodic if for some positive constant To

x(t) = x (t+To) for all t

The smallest value of To that satisfies the periodicity condition of

this equation is the fundamental period of x(t).
Deterministic vs Random
Deterministic

Random
 Even and Odd Functions
A real function xe(t) is said to be an even function of t if

xe(t) = xe(-t)

A real function xo(t) is said to be an odd function of t if

xo(t) = -xo(-t)
Causal vs Non-causal
 Even and Odd Function
Even and odd functions have the following properties:
• Even x Odd = Odd
• Odd x Odd = Even
• Even x Even = Even

Every signal x(t) can be expressed as a sum of even and

odd components because:
 Even and Odd Function

Example: Consider the causal exponential function

 Signal Models
• Unit Step Function u(t)
• Pulse Signal
• Unit Impulse Function  (t)
• Exponential Function est
 Unit Step Function u(t)
Step function defined by:

Useful to describe a signal that begins at t = 0 (i.e. causal signal).

For example, the signal e-at represents an

everlasting exponential that starts at t = -.
The causal for of this exponential e-atu(t)
 Pulse Signal

𝑥 ( 𝑡 ) =∏ ()
𝑡
𝜏 −𝜏 /2 𝜏 /2
𝑥 ( 𝑡 ) =∏ ( )
𝑡−3
2

A pulse signal can be presented by two step functions:

x(t) = u(t-2) – u(t-4)

u(t-2)

– u(t-4)
 Unit Impulse Function δ(t)
First defined by Dirac as:

𝛿 ( 𝑡 ) =0 𝑡 ≠ 0
∞
𝑑𝑢(𝑡 )
∫ 𝛿 ( 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡 =1
𝑑𝑡
=𝛿(𝑡 )
−∞
Multiplying Function  (t) by an Impulse
Since impulse is non-zero only at t = 0, and (t) at t = 0
is (0), we get:

We can generalize this for t = T:

Sampling Property of Unit Impulse Function
Since we have:

It follows that:
∞ ∞

∫ 𝜙(𝑡 ) 𝛿 ( 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡 =𝜙 (0) ∫ 𝛿 ( 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡 =𝜙(0)

−∞ −∞

This is the same as “sampling”  (t) at t = 0.

If we want to sample  (t) at t = T, we just multiple  (t)
with ∞

∫ 𝜙(𝑡 ) 𝛿 ( 𝑡 −𝑇 ) 𝑑𝑡=𝜙 (𝑇 )
−∞

This is called the “sampling or sifting property” of the

impulse.
 Examples
Simplify the following expression

Evaluate the following

Find dx/dt for the following signal

x(t) = u(t-2) – 3u(t-4)

 The Exponential Function est
• Important in signal and system analysis.
• s is a complex variable (complex frequency)
.
• is the decay rate and is the oscillation rate.

Example
𝑠𝑡 ( 𝜎+ 𝑗 𝜔 ) 𝑡 𝜎𝑡 𝑗 𝜔𝑡 𝜎𝑡
𝑒 =𝑒 =𝑒 𝑒 =𝑒 ( cos 𝜔 𝑡 + 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 )
∗
𝑠 𝑡 ( 𝜎 − 𝑗 𝜔 )𝑡 𝜎𝑡 − 𝑗 𝜔𝑡 𝜎𝑡
𝑒 =𝑒 =𝑒 𝑒 =𝑒 ( cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 )

1 𝑠𝑡
( 𝑒 + 𝑒𝑠 ) =𝑒 𝜎 𝑡 cos 𝜔 𝑡
∗
𝑡
2
 The Exponential Function est
The function est can be used to describe a very large
class of signals and functions.

1- A constant k x(t) = kest = ke0t = k s = 0

2- Exponential eσt x(t) = e (σ+jω)t = e σt ω = 0
3- Sinusoidal cos ωt x(t) =
x(t) = cos ωt σ=0
The Exponential Function est
 Classification of Systems
Systems may be classified into:

1. Linear and non-linear systems

2. Constant parameter and time-varying-parameter systems
3. Instantaneous (memoryless) and dynamic (with memory)
systems
4. Causal and non-causal systems
5. Continuous-time and discrete-time systems
6. Analog and digital systems
7. Invertible and noninvertible systems
8. Stable and unstable systems
 What are Systems?
• Systems are used to process signals to modify or extract
information
• Physical system – characterized by their input-output
relationships
• E.g. Electrical systems are characterized by voltage-current
relationships
• E.g. Mechanical systems are characterized by force-
displacement relationships
• From this, we derive a mathematical model of the system
• “Black box” model of a system:
 Linear Systems
• A linear system exhibits the additivity property:

if x1 ---> y1 and x2 ----> y2 then x1 + x2 ---> y1 + y2

• It also must satisfy the homogeneity or scaling property:

if x ---> y then kx ---> ky

• These can be combined into the property of superposition:

if x1 ---> y1 and x2 ----> y2 then k1 x1 + k2x2 ---> k1 y1 + k2 y2

• A non-linear system is one that is NOT linear (i.e. does not

obey the principle of superposition)
 Examples
Determine if the system linear or non-linear

a)

b) y = x2
 Advantage of Linear Systems
A complex input can be represented as a sum of simpler inputs
(pulse, step, sinusoidal), and then use linearity to find the
response to this simple inputs to find the system output to the
complex input.
 Time-Invariant System
Time-Invariant system is a system whose parameters
and response do not change with time.

Method to test time-invariant

 Example
Determine if the system is time-invariant?

(a) y(t) = 3x(t) (b) y(t) = t x(t)

Instantaneous and Dynamic Systems
Dynamic System: system’s output at time t depends on
the current input and past input (system with memory).

Instantaneous System: system’s output at time t

depends only on the current input. (memoryless
system)

Which of the two systems is instantaneous?

a) y(t) = 3 x(t)
b) y(t) = 3 x(t) + x(t-1)
 Causal and Noncausal Systems
Causal System: the output at any time instant t0 depends only on
the input x(t) for t ≤ t0 .

Present output depends on the past and present inputs, not on

future inputs.

All practical real time system must be causal system since it

cannot predict future input and produce an output based on
future input.

Which of the two systems is causal?

a) y(t) = 3 x(t) + x(t-2)
b) y(t) = 3 x(t) + x(t+2)
 Analog and Digital Systems
Analog System: Input is continuous and the output is continuous

Digital System: Input is discrete, and the output is discrete

 Invertible and Noninvertible
• Let S1 be a system whose output is y(t) for input x(t).
• S1 is invertible if it is possible to design a system S2 that takes
the signal y(t) as an input and produces an output that is x(t).
S2 is the inverse of S1.
• System S1 is invertible if it produces a unique output for every
unique input, one to one mapping of the inputs to the outputs.

Which of the two systems is invertible?

a) y(t) = x2
b) y = 2x
 System External Stability (BIBO)

System is externally stable if for bounded input it gives

bounded output.
 System Model

Many biological, electrical, and mechanical system can

be modeled by a differential equation that relates the
input x(t) to the output y(t).

The next task in coming chapters is to solve the

differential equation to find the output y(t) for specific
input x(t).
 Electrical System

i(t) + v(t) -
R + i(t)
i(t) v(t)
-
+ v(t) -

v : Voltage
i : Current
R : Resistor
C : Capacitor
L : Inductor
 Mechanical System

M : Mass
x : Force
y : Displacement
k : stiffness constant of the spring
B : Damping coefficient of the dashpot
 Example
Find the input-output relationship for the electrical
system shown below. The input is the voltage x(t), and
the output is the current y(t).

𝑑 𝑑2
=D =𝐷
2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2

2 𝑅 1 1
𝐷 𝑦+ 𝐷𝑦 + 𝑦= 𝐷𝑥
𝐿 𝐿𝐶 𝐿

𝑉 𝐿 +𝑉 𝑅 +𝑉 𝐶 =𝑥 (𝑡 ) D2y + 3Dy + 2y = Dx

𝑑𝑦 1 (D2 + 3D + 2) y = (D) x
𝐿 +𝑅𝑦 ( 𝑡 ) + ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑡=𝑥 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑅 𝑑𝑦 1 1 𝑑𝑥
+ + 𝑦 =
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 Characteristic Polynomial
 Example 2
Find the input-output relationship for the transitional mechanical
system shown below. The input is the force x(t), and the output
is the mass position y(t).
𝑥 ( 𝑡 ) − 𝐹 𝑠 − 𝐹 𝐷𝑃 =𝑀𝑎

𝑥 ( 𝑡 ) −𝑘𝑦 ( 𝑡 ) − 𝐵 𝑦˙ ( 𝑡 ) =𝑀 𝑦¨ (𝑡 )