Chapter 4 - Arrays and Hashes

Outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Additional Data Types
4.3 Lists and List Context
4.4 Arrays
4.5 Creating and Manipulating an Array
4.6 Repetition with the for Structure
4.7 Additional Examples of Creating Arrays
4.8 Array Manipulation
4.9 Array Functions
4.10 List Functions
4.11 Searching a Sorted Array
4.11.1 Linear Search
4.11.2 Binary Search
4.12 Introduction to Hashes
4.13 Creating and Manipulating a Hash
4.14 Hash-related Functions
4.15 Internet and World Wide Web Resources

 2001 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Name of array. (Note that all
elements of this array have the
same name, c.)

$c[ 0 ] -45
$c[ 1 ] 6
$c[ 2 ] 0
$c[ 3 ] 72
Note: Each element of
$c[ 4 ] 1543
the array is preceded
by $, rather than @, $c[ 5 ] -89
because the individual $c[ 6 ] 0
array elements are
scalar values. $c[ 7 ] 62
$c[ 8 ] -3
$c[ 9 ] 1
$c[ 10 ] 6453
$c[ 11 ] 78

Position number of the element

within array @c.

Fig. 4.1 A 12-element array.

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1 #!/usr/bin/perl Outline
2 # Fig. 4.2: fig04_02.pl
3 # Creating and initializing an array with list assignment.
4
5 @array = ( "Hello", 283, "there", 16.439 );
6 Create array @array by
7 # display every element of the array assigning it a list of values.
8 $i = 0; while structure to display the
9 subscript of each element and its
10 while ( $i < 4 ) { corresponding value.
11 print "$i $array[ $i ]\n";
12 ++$i;
13 }
Displays the element’s value
Displays the subscript
0 Hello
1 283
2 there
3 16.439

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1 #!/usr/bin/perl Outline
2 # Fig. 4.3: fig04_03.pl
3 # Looping through an array with the for repetition structure.
4
5 @array = ( "Hello", 283, "there", 16.439 );
for structure to display the
6 subscript of each element and its
7 # display every element of the array corresponding value.
8 for ( $i = 0; $i < 4; ++$i ) {
9 print "$i $array[ $i ]\n";
10 }

Initial value ofcondition

Loop-continuation
0 Hello Incrementcontrol
of control variable.
variable
1 283
2 there
3 16.439

 2001 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 for keyword Control variable Final value of control
name variable

for ( $i = 0; $i < 4; ++$i )

Initial value of Increment of

control variable control
Loop- variable
continuation
condition

Fig. 4.4 Components of a typical for header.

 2001 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Establish initial
value of control
variable

counter
$i = 0= 1

true
$i < 10 print "$i\n"; ++$i
Body of loop Increment
(this may be many the control
Determine if final false statements) variable
value of control
variable has been
reached

Fig. 4.5 Flowcharting a typical for repetition structure.

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1 #!/usr/bin/perl Outline
2 # Fig. 4.6: fig04_06.pl
3 # Create an array by referring to nonexistent elements.
4
5 # Create @array with one element by referring to
6 # nonexistent element 0.
7 $array[ 0 ] = "happy"; Assign string “happy” to $array[ 0 ].
8 print "@array\n"; This automatically creates array @array.
9
10 # Add more elements to @array by referring to
11 # nonexistent element 3. There are now 4 elements
12 # in the array. Elements 1 and 2 have undefined values.
13 $array[ 3 ] = "birthday";
Assign string “birthday” to the fourth element
14 print "@array\n\n";
of the array. This automatically creates the second
15
and third elements with the value undef.
16 # Loop through the array and replace every undefined
17 # value with an actual value.
18 for ( $i = 0; $i < 4; ++$i ) {
19
20 # if the element is not defined, assign it a value
21 if ( ! defined( $array[ $i ] ) ) {
22 $array[ $i ] = "happy"; Use aof for repetition structurethetoarray
assign values
23 }
Print the elements @array. Enclosing name
TheThe
in double structure
ifquotes
logical assigns
to alldisplays
undefined
negation the the string
elements.
operator
elements,(!)“happy”
reverses by
separated to
24 } anythe
spaces. array
Notvalueelement
Function that
of adefined
enclosing is notreturns
condition.
the array defined.
name ina value
doubleofquotes
true if
25
26 print "@array\n";
itselements
displays the argumentinisone defined; otherwise,
long string, with itthe
returns
valuesa
27 print @array, "\n"; value of false.
concatenated.
 2001 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
happy Outline
happy birthday

happy happy happy birthday

happyhappyhappybirthday

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 1 #!/usr/bin/perl Outline
2 # Fig. 4.7: fig04_07.pl
3 # Demonstrating the qw and .. operators.
4
5 @array = qw( this is an array of strings );
6 print "@array\n\n";
7
8 @array2 = ( 1 .. 5 ); Operator qw, when passed words
9 print "Value\tRunning Total\n"; separated by spaces, converts the words
10 into a list of strings
11 for ( $i = 0; $i < 5; ++$i ) {
12 $total += $array2[ $i ];
The range operator (..) creates a
13 print( $array2[ $i ], "\t$total\n");
consecutive range of string or numeric
14 }
15 Thevalues.
for structure adds each element to
16 @array2 = ( 'a' .. 'z' ); Thevariable
range operator
$total mayandalso
thenbedisplays
used the
17 print "\n@array2\n"; withelement
strings.and
Thethe
range operator
running total of the
increments
elements.the starting value in the
this is an array of strings range repeatedly until it reaches the
ending value in the range.
Value Running Total
1 1
2 3
3 6
4 10
5 15

a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z

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 1 #!/usr/bin/perl Outline
2 # Fig. 4.8: fig04_08.pl
3 # Manipulating the length of an array.
4
5 @array =
6 qw( zero one two three four five six seven eight nine );
7
8 # output the number of elements and the last index number
9 print "There are ", scalar( @array ),
10 " elements in \@array.\n";
11 print "The last index in \@array is $#array.\n\n"; Function scalar returns the
12
total number of elements in the
13 # output the last element in the array
array.
14 print "\@array[ $#array ] is $array[ $#array ].\n\n";
15
16 # use negative subscripts to access Assigning
The $#array
10 to $#array
notation
makes
determines
the the
17 # elements from the end of the array new$#array
high
last indexis number
used
subscript as of
thethe
number subscript
10 and of
array.
18 print "\@array[ -1 ] is $array[ -1 ].\n"; @array
increases thetonumber
access of
theelements
value ofin
thethe
last
19 print "\@array[ -4 ] is $array[ -4 ].\n\n"; element of the array.
array.
20
21 $#array = 5; # reduce the Removes
number ofallelements
the elements
to 6in the array by
22 print "@array.\n";
assigning the empty list to @array.
23 AssigningNegative
5 to $#array makes
subscripts the new
are used to access
24 $#array = 10; # increase high subscript
the number number
of elements 5
to 11 and deletes the
elements of the array from the end of the
25 print "@array.\n"; elements array.
at index numbers 6-9.
26
27 @array = (); # remove all elements in the array
28 print "@array.\n";
29 print "There are now ", scalar( @array ),
30 " elements in \@array\n";
 2001 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
There are 10 elements in @array. Outline
The last index in @array is 9.

@array[ 9 ] is nine.

@array[ -1 ] is nine.
@array[ -4 ] is six.

zero one two three four five.

zero one two three four five .
.
There are now 0 elements in @array

 2001 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 1 #!/usr/bin/perl Outline
2 # Fig. 4.9: fig04_09.pl
3 # Demonstrating array slices and list assignment.
4
5 @array =
6 qw( zero one two three four five six seven eight nine );
7 print "@array\n\n"; List assignment enables a list of values
8
The brackettooperator, cana be
[], to
be assigned listused to
of scalars. In
9 # display slices of @array An array
create a listthis slice
containing is used
thethe on
specified the left
set side of
example, string “banana” is
10 print "@array[ 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 ]\n"; a list assignment
of elementsassigned
from an to
array. to assign new values to
11 print "@array[ 2 .. 6 ]\n\n"; the variable $chiquita
the elements at locations 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9
12 and the string “pineapple” is
of @array.
13 # perform list assignments and display results assigned to the variable $dole.
14 ( $chiquita, $dole ) = ( "banana", "pineapple" ); List assignment can also be used to swap
15 print "\$chiquita = $chiquita\n\$dole = $dole\n"; variable values. The values of variables
16 @array[ 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 ] = qw( 1 3 5 7 9 ); $chiquita and $dole are exchanged.
17 print "@array\n\n";
18
19 # use list assignment to swap the values of two variables
20 ( $chiquita, $dole ) = ( $dole, $chiquita );
21 print "After swapping values:\n"; An array can be used as part of a list on the
22 left side of a list assignment. The array
print "\$chiquita = $chiquita\n\$dole = $dole\n\n";
23 receives all remaining initializers in the list
24 # show that an array on the left of a list assignment
on the right side of a list assignment.
25 # receives all remaining initializers in the list on the
26 # right side of a list assignment
27 ( $first, @array2, $second ) = ( 1 .. 8 );
28 print "\$first = $first\n";
29 print "\@array2 = @array2\n";
30 print "\$second = $second\n";
 2001 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Outline
zero one two three four five six seven eight nine

one three five seven nine

two three four five six

$chiquita = banana
$dole = pineapple
zero 1 two 3 four 5 six 7 eight 9

After swapping values:

$chiquita = pineapple
$dole = banana

$first = 1
@array2 = 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
$second =

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 1 #!/usr/bin/perl Outline
2 # Fig. 4.10: fig04_10.pl
3 # Demonstrating the push, pop, shift and unshift functions.
4 The for structure uses function push to add
5 # Use push to insert elements at the end of @array.
elements with values 1 through 5 to the end of
6 for ( $i = 1; $i <= 5; ++$i ) {
@array.
7 push( @array, $i ); # add $i to end of @array
8 print "@array\n"; # display current @array
9 }
10 Function push receives two arguments: an array
11 # While there are and a list
more elements in @array, pop of elements
each to be inserted at the end of
element.
12 # Note the use of the array.
@array as a condition. When @array is empty,
13 # the condition becomes false; otherwise, it is true.
14 while ( @array ) {
15
Function
The structure uses
for unshift inserts
$firstTotal += pop( @array ); # remove last element
function
an element at theto add
unshift
16 print "@array\n"; beginning
elements with
of the
# display values
array.1@array
current through 5 to the beginning of
17 } @array.
18
19 print "\$firstTotal = $firstTotal\n\n";
20
21 # Use unshift to insert elementsThe
atThe
condition
Function
the frontof
while loop
the@array.
pop
of removes
removesloop
while the
theelements
last
evaluates
element
from
to from
true ifan
@array
22 for ( $i = 1; $i <= 5; ++$i ) { there
andare
array,
adds
elements
each
returns
element
inthat
the element
array
to $firstTotal.
andand
false
reduces
if the the
array
Thesize
current
is of
23 unshift( @array, $i ); #
empty.add $i
contents to
the array front
of the
byarray of @array
one. are displayed in each iteration of
24 print "@array\n"; # display current @array
the loop.
25 }
26

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27 # While there are more elements in @array, remove each element Outline
28 # with shift.
29 while ( @array ) {
30 $secondTotal += shift( @array ); # remove first element
31 print "@array\n"; # display current @array
32 }
33
34 print "\$secondTotal = $secondTotal\n";

1
1 2 Function shift removes and returns the
1 2 3
first element of the array.
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4
1 2 3
1 2
1

$firstTotal = 15

1
2 1
3 2 1
4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1
3 2 1
2 1
1

$secondTotal = 15
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1 #!/usr/bin/perl Outline
2 # Figure 4.11: splice.pl
3 # Demonstrating function splice.
4
5 # create two arrays and display their initial contents
6 @array = ( 0 .. 20 );
7 @array2 = ( A .. F );
8 print "\@array: @array\n"; Create two arrays and display their
9 print "\@array2: @array2\n\n"; contents.
10
11 # replace part of @array with the elements from @array2
12 @replaced = splice( @array, 5, scalar( @array2 ), @array2 );
13 print "replaced: @replaced\n",
Removes three elements from @array starting with
The first argument to function splice is the
14 "with: @array2\n", Function
element
array splice
15. The
to modify. returnedremoves
list isor replaces
stored in @removed.
15 "resulting in: @array\n\n"; The second argument
slices of anThearray. is the offset into the
third argument is the length array— of the
StartingThefrom
i.e., the index ofslice element
fourth 5
argument
the first in is a
@array,list toall
element to modify in the six
replace
16 to modify.
17 # remove 3 elements, beginning witharray. elements
element theof
15 specified
of @array slice
@array2 replace
of the six elements
array. If this of
18 @removed = splice( @array, 15, 3 );
@array. The listis of
argument replaced
omitted, theelements returned
slice is simply
Removes all elements from subscript 8 to the end of
19 print "removed: @removed\n",
from splice
removedisfrom storedtheinarray.
@replaced.
@array.
20 "leaving: @array\n\n";
21
22 # remove all elements from element 8 to the end of @array
23 @chopped = splice( @array, 8 );
24 print "removed: @chopped\n",
25 "leaving: @array\n\n";
26
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27 # delete all remaining elements Outline
28 splice( @array );
Deletes all remaining elements in
29
@array.
30 unless ( @array ) {
31 print "\@array has no elements remaining\n";
32 }

@array: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
@array2: A B C D E F

replaced: 5 6 7 8 9 10
with: A B C D E F
resulting in: 0 1 2 3 4 A B C D E F 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

removed: 15 16 17
leaving: 0 1 2 3 4 A B C D E F 11 12 13 14 18 19 20

removed: D E F 11 12 13 14 18 19 20
leaving: 0 1 2 3 4 A B C

@array has no elements remaining

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1 #!/usr/bin/perl Outline
2 # Fig. 4.12: fig04_12.pl
3 # Reversing the elements of an array and
4 # sorting arrays lexically and numerically.
When passed a list, function sort returns a copy of
5
the list sorted lexically (i.e., in ASCII order); the
6 # create @array with values from 1-10 and reverse the values
original list is left unchanged.
7 @array = ( 0 .. 9 );
8 @reversed = reverse( @array );
Function reverse takes a list as an argument
9 print "Original: @array\n";
and returns a new list with the same contents in
10 print "Reversed: @reversed\n\n"; reverse order; the original list is left unchanged.
11
Sorts
12 # create an unsorted array of numbers and @array2
sort it numerically by specifying the
13 @array2 = ( 100, 23, 9, 75, 5, 10, 2, sorting
50, order
7, 96, 1, with
40 );{ $a <=> $b }.
14 @sortedLexically = sort @array2;
15 @sortedNumerically = sort { $a <=> $b } @array2;
16 print "Unsorted: @array2\n";
17 print "Lexically: @sortedLexically\n";
18 print "Numerically: @sortedNumerically\n";

Original: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Reversed: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Unsorted: 100 23 9 75 5 10 2 50 7 96 1 40
Lexically: 1 10 100 2 23 40 5 50 7 75 9 96
Numerically: 1 2 5 7 9 10 23 40 50 75 96 100

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1 #!/usr/bin/perl Outline
2 # Fig. 4.13: fig04_13.pl
3 # Linear search of an array.
4
5 # populate @array with the even integers from 0 to 198
6 for ( $i = 0; $i < 100; ++$i ) {
7 $array[ $i ] = 2 * $i;
8 } Prompts the user to enter a search key.
9
The for structure populates @array with
10 # prompt the user for a search key
even integers
Variable $found from 0 to 198.
is initially set to 0
11 print "Enter an integer search key: "; The for
(false) structurethat
to indicate performs
the valuethehas
linear
not search. The
12 chomp( $searchKey = <STDIN> ); condition
been foundof the for structure is a compound
yet.
13 The logical
conditionAND thatoperator (&&) combines
tests whether the countertwo$i is less
14 # a boolean value to help determine conditions
when than
to tosearching
the
stop create a of
number more complex
elements condition.and
in @array
15 $found = 0; # $found is initially false whether the search key is “not found.”
16
17 # use a loop to access every element of @array
The if structure determines if the current
If the searchofkey
element has been
@array found,the
contains variable
18 for ( $i = 0; $i < @array && !$found; ++$i ) {
19
$found is set to 1value.
$searchKey to exit the loop.
20 # determine if the current element is the search key
21 if ( $array[ $i ] == $searchKey ) {
22 $index = $i; # store index where it was found
23 $found = 1; # indicates we should stop looping
24 }
25 }

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26 Outline
27 if ( $found ) { # $found == 1
28 print "Found $searchKey at subscript $index \n";
29 }
30 else { # $found == 0
31 print "$searchKey not found \n";
32 }

Enter an integer search key: 50

Found 50 at subscript 25

Enter an integer search key: 17

17 not found

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1 #!/usr/bin/perl Outline
2 # Fig. 4.14: fig04_14.pl
3 # Binary search of an array.
4
5 # populate @array with the even integers from 0 to 28
6 for ( $i = 0; $i < 15; ++$i ) {
7 $array[ $i ] = 2 * $i;
Prompts
Createthe user to and
@array enterpopulate
a searchitkey.
with
8 }
9 even integers from 0 to 28 (a total of
10 # prompt the user for a search key 15 elements).
11 print "Enter an integer search key: ";
12 chomp( $searchKey = <STDIN> );
13
14 # display header string for output
15 print "\n"; # output a blank line
16
17 for ( $i = 0; $i < @array; ++$i ) { Displays header of program output.
18 print $i < 10 ? " $i " : " $i ";
19 }
20
Defines three elements used in the binary
21 print "\n", "-" x ( 4 * @array ), "\n";
search algorithm.
22
23 # perform a binary search
24 $found = 0; # search while !$found
25 $lowIndex = 0; # start index for search
26 $highIndex = $#array; # end index for search
27
 2001 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
28 while ( $lowIndex <= $highIndex && !$found ) { Outline
29 $middleIndex = ( $lowIndex + $highIndex ) / 2;
30
31 # lines 32 through 46 are for output purposes only
32 for ( $i = 0; $i < @array; ++$i ) {
33 if ( $i < $lowIndex || $i > $highIndex ) { If theFor all other
Determines
control thecontrol
variable’s
subscriptvariables,
value ofisthe that
outside
34 print " "; The
element while loop
of the subarray will iterate
is itrange,while
35 }
the current
middle element
subarray’s
$lowIndex and
is subscript
assigns
less than ortoequal
displayed.
then$middleIndex.
spaces are output. and the value of
36 elsif ( $i == $middleIndex ) { to $highIndex
37 print $array[ $i ] < 10 ? " $array[ $i ]*" : $found is not true.
38 " $array[ $i ]*";
39 }
40 else { If the control variable's value
41 print $array[ $i ] < 10 ? " $array[ $i ] " : equals $middleIndex, then the
42 " $array[ $i ] "; middle element of the subarray is
43 }
If $searchKeyoutput,equals
followedthe by an asterisk
middle of the
44 } TheIffor structure
$searchKey displays
is lessthe current
than the subarray.
middle
45
(*). the search is complete, so
current subarray,
element’s
$indexvalue, $highIndex
is assigned $middleIndex is assigned andthe
46 print "\n";
47 # back to binary searching index one less
$found than $middleIndex.
is assigned 1.
48
49 # the following if/elsif/else determines if $searchKey
50 # has been found
51 if ( $searchKey == $array[ $middleIndex ] ) { # match
52 $index = $middleIndex;
53 $found = 1;
54 }
55 elsif ( $searchKey < $array[ $middleIndex ] ) {
56 $highIndex = $middleIndex - 1; # search low end of array
57 }

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58 else { Outline
59 $lowIndex = $middleIndex + 1; # search high end of array
60 }
61 } For all other $searchKey values,
62 $lowIndex is assigned the index one
63 # display results greater than $middleIndex.
64 if ( $found ) { # $found == 1
65 print "\nFound $searchKey at subscript $index \n";
66 }
67 else { # $found == 0 When the loop terminates, the results of
68 print "\n$searchKey not found \n";
the search are displayed.
69 }

Enter an integer search key: 25

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
------------------------------------------------------------
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14* 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
16 18 20 22* 24 26 28
24 26* 28
24*

25 not found

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Enter an integer search key: 8 Outline
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
------------------------------------------------------------
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14* 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
0 2 4 6* 8 10 12
8 10* 12
8*

Found 8 at subscript 4

Enter an integer search key: 6

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
------------------------------------------------------------
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14* 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
0 2 4 6* 8 10 12

Found 6 at subscript 3

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 1 #!/usr/bin/perl Outline
2 # Fig. 4.15: fig04_15.pl
3 # Creating and accessing hash elements
4
5 # create a hash and output its values Defines a hash by assigning a list to a
6 %hash = ( width => '300',
hash variable (%hash).
7 height => '150' );
8 print "\$hash{ 'width' } = $hash{ 'width' }\n";
Adds a new element to the existing
9 print "\$hash{ 'height' } = $hash{ 'height' }\n\n";
hash. Assigning a value to a new key in
10 The first value in this list (width)
a hash automatically creates a new
11 # assigning to a new hash element is the key of the first element to be
element in that hash.
12 $hash{ 'color' } = 'blue'; A key’s corresponding
created value
in the hash, and thecan be
second
13 print "\$hash{ 'width' } = $hash{ 'width' }\n"; accessed
value inbythe
preceding the hash
list (‘300’) name
is that
14 print "\$hash{ 'height' } = $hash{ 'height' }\n"; with a $ that
and enclosing thetokey
value corresponds thatinkey.
curly
15 print "\$hash{ 'color' } = $hash{ 'color' }\n\n"; braces ({}).
16
17 # display a hash with print
18 print "%hash\n"; # no interpolation, unlike with arrays
19 print %hash, "\n"; # difficult to read, no spaces

$hash{ 'width' } = 300

$hash{ 'height' } = 150 Outputting
Hashes arethenot
hash with print when
interpolated concatenates
enclosedallin
thedouble
key-value pairs and outputs them as one
quotes.
$hash{ 'width' } = 300 long string.
$hash{ 'height' } = 150
$hash{ 'color' } = blue

%hash
height150width300colorblue

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1 #!/usr/bin/perl Outline
2 # Fig. 4.16: fig04_16.pl
3 # Demonstrating hash slices.
4
5 %romanNumerals = ( one => 'I',
6 two => 'II',
7 three => 'III',
8 four => 'IV', Creates the hash %romanNumerals
9 five => 'V', Displays
wherethe
theresults of aEnglish
keys are hash slice containing
words
10 six => 'VI', the values for thethe
representing keys ‘three’,
numbers from ‘five’
1 to 10
11 seven => 'VII', and and
‘eight’.
the values are the roman numerals
12 eight => 'VIII', representing these numbers.
13 nine => 'IX',
14 ten => 'X' );
15
16 print "The Roman numerals for three, five and eight are: ",
17 "@romanNumerals{ 'three', 'five', 'eight' }\n";

The Roman numerals for three, five and eight are: III V VIII

 2001 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

1 #!/usr/bin/perl Outline
2 # Fig. 4.17: fig04_17.pl
3 # Demonstrates hash functions keys, values, each and reverse.
4
5 %presidents = ( George => "Washington",
6 Abe => "Lincoln",
Assigns the result of function pop to
7 Thomas => "Jefferson",
variable $key. The while loop executes
8 Harry => "Truman" );
until the array is empty.
9
10 # obtain the list of keys and display each key-value pair
11 @keys = keys( %presidents );
12 The condition in the loop uses list
13 while ( $key = pop( @keys ) ) { Function keys obtains a listtoofassign
assignment all the$key and
14 print "$key => $presidents{ $key }\n"; Function
keys in values obtains aThe
%presidents.
$value listresult
the of values
is pair returned
key-value
15 } inassigned
%presidents.
to arrayeach.
@keys.
16
Function reverse obtains a list of key-v
17 # display the list of values
pairs in which the keys and values are
18 @values = values( %presidents );
reversed.
19 print "\nThe values of the hash are:\n@values\n\n"; Function each is used in the whil
20 to display the reversed key-value p
21 # reverse the hash and use function each to get each pair
22 print "%presidents with its keys and values reversed\n";
23 %hash = reverse( %presidents );
24
25 while ( ( $key, $value ) = each( %presidents ) ) {
26 print "$key => $value\n";
27 }
 2001 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Harry => Truman Outline
Abe => Lincoln
Thomas => Jefferson
George => Washington

The values of the hash are:

Washington Jefferson Lincoln Truman

%presidents with its keys and values reversed

Washington => George
Truman => Harry
Jefferson => Thomas
Lincoln => Abe

 2001 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

 1 #!/usr/bin/perl Outline
2 # Fig. 4.18: fig04_18.pl
3 # Demonstrating functions delete, exists and defined.
4
5 %hash = ( Karl => 12,
6 Joe => 43, Assigns to @hashKeys all the keys in
7 Shawn => 0, %hash using function keys.
8 Paul => 11,
9 Bill => undef );
10
11 # obtain the list of hashKeys and display each key-value pair
12 @hashKeys = keys( %hash );
13 Function exists returns true in
14 for ( $i = 0; $i < @hashKeys; ++$i ) { this context if the key $key is in
15 print "$hashKeys[ $i ] => $hash{ $hashKeys[ $i ] }\n"; the hash.
16 }
17 Each key-value pair in %hash is
18 # delete the element with key 'Joe' from %hash displayed.
19 delete( $hash{ 'Joe' } );
20
21 # this loop determines if each key exists, is defined and
22 # whether the value for the key evaluates to true or false
23 while ( $key = pop( @hashKeys ) ) {
24 print "\n"; Function delete removes an element
25 from the hash. In this case, the key-
26 # determine if a particular key exists
value pair for key ‘Joe’ are removed
27 if ( exists( $hash{ $key } ) ) {
28 print "$key exists in the hash.\n";
from %hash.
29 }

 2001 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

30 else { Outline
31 print "$key doesn't exist in the hash.\n";
32 }
33
34 # determine if the value for the key is defined
35 if ( defined( $hash{ $key } ) ) {
36 print "$key is defined as $hash{ $key }.\n";
37 }
38 else { Function defined returns true in this
39 print "$key is undefined.\n"; context if the key $key is in the hash
40 }
and its value is defined.
41
42 # determine if the value for the key is true or false
43 if ( $hash{ $key } ) {
44 print "$key is true.\n";
45 }
46 else { The if/else structure determines if the
47 print "$key is false.\n"; value for each $key is true or false when
48 } evaluated in boolean context.
49 }

 2001 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

Joe => 43 Outline
Bill =>
Karl => 12
Paul => 11
Shawn => 0

Shawn exists in the hash.

Shawn is defined as 0.
Shawn is false.

Paul exists in the hash.

Paul is defined as 11.
Paul is true.

Karl exists in the hash.

Karl is defined as 12.
Karl is true.

Bill exists in the hash.

Bill is undefined.
Bill is false.

Joe doesn't exist in the hash.

Joe is undefined.
Joe is false.

 2001 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.