CSE563

APPLIED MATHEMATICS
LECTURE-1
Number theory
Basic Concepts need to be known prior
• Natural Numbers: The numbers that we use when we are counting or
ordering. Eg: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 …….}
• Whole Numbers: The numbers that include natural numbers and zero.
Not a fraction or decimal. Eg: {0, 2, 3, 4, 5 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 …….}
• Integer: A counting number, zero, or the negative of a counting number.
No fractions or decimals. Eg: {… -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 …}
• Decimal Number: A decimal point a decimal number can be defined as
a number whose whole number part and the fractional part is separated
by a decimal point. Eg: 0.256 or 1.2
• Rational Numbers: Can be expressed as a fraction. Include integers and
fractions or decimals. Eg: 1/2 , 2/3 , 4/7, 0.5, 6.7
Basic Concepts need to be known prior (cont…)
• Irrational Numbers: These are numbers except rational numbers i.e. the ones
that cannot be expressed as fractions. Eg: π,
• Positive Numbers: Greater than 0. x is positive if x > 0. Eg: 1, 17, 13.44, π, 18/3
• Negative Numbers: Less than 0. x is negative if x < 0. Eg: -17, -18.892, -1981, -π
• Non-Negative Numbers: Greater than or equal to 0. x is nonnegative if x ≥ 0. Eg:
0, 1, π, 47812, 16/3, 189.53
• Non-Positive Numbers: Includes negative numbers and 0. x is nonpositive if x ≥
0. Eg: 0, -1, -π, -47812, -16/3, -189.53
• Even Numbers: An integer that is divisible by 2. Eg: 0; 2; -16; -8; 99837222
• Odd Numbers: An integer that is NOT divisible by 2. Eg: 1; 7; 19; -17
Introduction to Number Theory
• Number theory is about integers and their properties.
• We will start with the basic principles of
• divisibility,
• greatest common divisors,
• least common multiples, and
• modular arithmetic
• and look at some relevant algorithms.
Division
• If a and b are integers with a  0, we say that
a divides b if there is an integer c so that b = ac.

• When a divides b we say that a is a factor of b and that b is a

multiple of a.

• The notation a | b means that a divides b.

• We write a X b when a does not divide b.

Divisibility Theorems
• For integers a, b, and c it is true that

• if a | b and a | c, then a | (b + c)
• Example: 3 | 6 and 3 | 9, so 3 | 15.

• if a | b, then a | bc for all integers c

• Example: 5 | 10, so 5 | 20, 5 | 30, 5 | 40, …

• if a | b and b | c, then a | c
• Example: 4 | 8 and 8 | 24, so 4 | 24.
Primes
A positive integer p greater than 1 is called prime if the only
positive factors of p are 1 and p.

A positive integer that is greater than 1 and is not prime is called

composite.

The fundamental theorem of arithmetic:

Every positive integer can be written uniquely as the product of
primes, where the prime factors are written in order of increasing
size.
Primes
Examples:
15 = 3·5

48 = 2·2·2·2·3 = 24·3

17 = 17

100 = 2·2·5·5 = 22·52

512 = 2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2 = 29

515 = 5·103

28 = 2·2·7
The Division Algorithm
Let a be an integer and d a positive integer.
Then there are unique integers q and r, with 0  r < d, such
that a = dq + r.

In the above equation,

• d is called the divisor,
• a is called the dividend,
• q is called the quotient, and
• r is called the remainder.
The Division Algorithm
Example:

When we divide 17 by 5, we have

17 = 53 + 2.

• 17 is the dividend,
• 5 is the divisor,
• 3 is called the quotient, and
• 2 is called the remainder.
The Division Algorithm
Another example:
What happens when we divide -11 by 3 ?
Note that the remainder cannot be negative.
-11 = 3(-4) + 1.

• -11 is the dividend,

• 3 is the divisor,
• -4 is called the quotient, and
• 1 is called the remainder.
Example: Find the quotient and the remainder when the
polynomial 4x3 + 5x2 + 5x + 8 is divided by (4x + 1) and verify
the result by the division algorithm.
Greatest Common Divisors

Let a and b be integers, not both zero.

The largest integer d such that d | a and d | b is called the

greatest common divisor of a and b.
The greatest common divisor of a and b is denoted by
gcd(a, b).
Example 1: What is gcd(48, 72) ?
The positive common divisors of 48 and 72 are
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, and 24, so gcd(48, 72) = 24.

Example 2: What is gcd(19, 72) ?

The only positive common divisor of 19 and 72 is
1, so gcd(19, 72) = 1.
Greatest Common Divisors
Using prime factorizations:
• a = p1a1 p2a2 … pnan , b = p1b1 p2b2 … pnbn ,
• where p1 < p2 < … < pn and ai, bi  N for 1  i  n
• gcd(a, b) = p1min(a1, b1 ) p2min(a2, b2 ) … pnmin(an, bn )

Example:
a = 60 = 22 31 51
b = 54 = 21 33 50
gcd(a, b) = 21 31 50 = 6
Example: Find the greatest common factor of 24, 148 and 36
Relatively Prime Integers
Definition:
Two integers a and b are relatively prime if gcd(a, b) = 1.

Examples:
Are 15 and 28 relatively prime?
•Yes, gcd(15, 28) = 1.
Are 55 and 28 relatively prime?
•Yes, gcd(55, 28) = 1.
Are 35 and 28 relatively prime?
No, gcd(35, 28) = 7.
Pairwise Relatively Prime Integers
Definition:
The integers a1, a2, …, an are pairwise relatively prime if gcd(ai, aj) = 1
whenever 1  i < j  n.

Examples:
Are 15, 17, and 27 pairwise relatively prime?
•No, because gcd(15, 27) = 3.
Are 15, 17, and 28 pairwise relatively prime?
Yes, because gcd(15, 17) = 1, gcd(15, 28) = 1
and gcd(17, 28) = 1.
Least Common Multiples
Definition:
The least common multiple of the positive integers a and
b is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both a
and b.
We denote the least common multiple of a and b by
lcm(a, b).
Examples:
lcm(3, 7) = 21

lcm(4, 6) = 12

lcm(5, 10) = 10
Least Common Multiples
Using prime factorizations:
a = p1a1 p2a2 … pnan , b = p1b1 p2b2 … pnbn ,
where p1 < p2 < … < pn and ai, bi  N for 1  i  n
lcm(a, b) = p1max(a1, b1 ) p2max(a2, b2 ) … pnmax(an, bn )

Example:
a = 60 = 22 31 51
b = 54 = 21 33 50
lcm(a, b) = 22 33 51 = 4*27*5 = 540
GCD and LCM
a = 60 = 22 31 51

b = 54 = 21 33 50

gcd(a, b) = 21 31 50 =6

lcm(a, b) = 22 33 51 = 540

a*b = gcd(a,b)*lcm(a,b)
Modular Arithmetic
Let a be an integer and m be a positive integer.
We denote a mod m the remainder, when a is divided by m.

Examples:
9 mod 4 = 1

9 mod 3 = 0

9 mod 10 = 9

-13 mod 4 = 3
7 mod 2=?
Congruences
Let a and b be integers and m be a positive integer. We say that
a is congruent to b modulo m if
m divides a – b.

We use the notation a  b (mod m) to indicate that a is

congruent to b modulo m.

In other words:
a  b (mod m) if and only if a mod m = b mod m.
Congruences
Examples:
Is it true that 46  68 (mod 11) ?
Yes, because 11 | (46 – 68).
Is it true that 46  68 (mod 22)?
Yes, because 22 | (46 – 68).
The Euclidean Algorithm
The Euclidean Algorithm finds the greatest common divisor of
two integers a and b.
For example, if we want to find gcd(287, 91), we divide 287 by 91:
287 = 913 + 14
We know that for integers a, b and c,
if a | b and a | c, then a | (b + c).
Therefore, any divisor of 287 and 91 must also be a divisor of 287 -
913 = 14.
Consequently, gcd(287, 91) = gcd(14, 91).
The Euclidean Algorithm
In the next step, we divide 91 by 14:
91 = 146 + 7
This means that gcd(14, 91) = gcd(14, 7).

So we divide 14 by 7:
14 = 72 + 0
We find that 7 | 14, and thus gcd(14, 7) = 7.

Therefore, gcd(287, 91) = 7.

The Euclidean Algorithm
In pseudocode, the algorithm can be implemented as follows:

procedure gcd(a, b: positive integers)

x := a
y := b
while y  0
begin
r := x mod y
x := y
y := r
end {x is gcd(a, b)}
Find the GCD of 270 and 192
Representations of Integers
Let b be a positive integer greater than 1.
Then if n is a positive integer, it can be expressed uniquely in the
form:

n = akbk + ak-1bk-1 + … + a1b + a0,

where k is a nonnegative integer,

a0, a1, …, ak are nonnegative integers less than b,
and ak  0.

Example for b=10(Decimal representation):

859 = 8102 + 5101 + 9100
Representations of Integers
Example for b=2 (binary expansion):
(10110)2 = 124 + 122 + 121 = (22)10

Example for b=16 (hexadecimal expansion):

(we use letters A to F to indicate numbers 10 to 15)
(3A0F)16 = 3163 + 10162 + 15160 = (14863)10
Representations of Integers
How can we construct the base b expansion of an integer n?
• First, divide n by b to obtain a quotient q0 and remainder a0,
that is,
n = bq0 + a0, where 0  a0 < b.
The remainder a0 is the rightmost digit in the base b expansion
of n.
• Next, divide q0 by b to obtain:
q0 = bq1 + a1, where 0  a1 < b.
a1 is the second digit from the right in the base b expansion of n.
Continue this process until you obtain a quotient equal to zero.
Representations of Integers
Example:
What is the base 8 expansion of (12345)10 ?

First, divide 12345 by 8:

12345 = 81543 + 1
1543 = 8192 + 7
192 = 824 + 0
24 = 83 + 0
3 = 80 + 3
The result is: (12345)10 = (30071)8.
Addition of Integers
Let a = (an-1an-2…a1a0)2, b = (bn-1bn-2…b1b0)2.
How can we add these two binary numbers?
First, add their rightmost bits:
• a0 + b0 = c02 + s0,
where s0 is the rightmost bit in the binary expansion of a + b, and
c0 is the carry.
Then, add the next pair of bits and the carry:
•a1 + b1 + c0 = c12 + s1,
where s1 is the next bit in the binary expansion of a + b, and c1 is
the carry.
Addition of Integers
Continue this process until you obtain cn-1.

The leading bit of the sum is sn = cn-1.

The result is:

a + b = (snsn-1…s1s0)2
Addition of Integers
Example:
Add a = (1110)2 and b = (1011)2.

a0 + b0 = 0 + 1 = 02 + 1, so that c0 = 0 and s0 = 1.

a1 + b1 + c0 = 1 + 1 + 0 = 12 + 0, so c1 = 1 and s1 = 0.
a2 + b2 + c1 = 1 + 0 + 1 = 12 + 0, so c2 = 1 and s2 = 0.
a3 + b3 + c2 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 12 + 1, so c3 = 1 and s3 = 1.
s4 = c3 = 1.

Therefore, s = a + b = (11001)2.
 Addition of Integers
•How do we (humans) add two integers?

1 11 carry
Example: 7583
+ 4932
1 2515

1 1 carry

Binary expansions: (1011)2

+ (1010)2
( 1 0 1 0 1 )2
10001 + 11101 = ?
THANKS !!!