Chapter 5: Procedures

Chapter Overview

• Linking to an External Library

• The Book's Link Library
• Simple I/O without a Library
• Stack Operations
• Defining and Using Procedures
• Program Design Using Procedures

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 The Book's Link Library

• Link Library Overview

• Calling a Library Procedure
• Linking to a Library
• Library Procedures – Overview
• Six Examples

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 Link Library Overview
• A file containing procedures that have been compiled
into machine code
• constructed from one or more OBJ files
• To build a library, . . .
• start with one or more ASM source files
• assemble each into an OBJ file
• create an empty library file (extension .LIB)
• add the OBJ file(s) to the library file, using the
Microsoft LIB utility

Take a quick look at Irvine32.asm in the \Irvine\Examples\Lib32 folder.

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 Calling a Library Procedure
• Call a library procedure using the CALL instruction. Some
procedures require input arguments. The INCLUDE directive
copies in the procedure prototypes (declarations).
• The following example displays "1234" on the console:

INCLUDE Irvine32.inc
.code
mov eax,1234h ; input argument
call WriteHex ; show hex number
call Crlf ; end of line

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 Linking to a Library
• Your programs link to Irvine32.lib using the linker command
inside a batch file named make32.bat.
• Notice the two LIB files: Irvine32.lib, and kernel32.lib
• the latter is part of the Microsoft Win32 Software
Development Kit (SDK)

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 What's Next

• Linking to an External Library

• The Book's Link Library
• Stack Operations
• Defining and Using Procedures
• Program Design Using Procedures

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 Library Procedures - Overview (1 of 5)

CloseFile – Closes an open disk file

Clrscr - Clears console, locates cursor at upper left corner
CreateOutputFile - Creates new disk file for writing in output mode
Crlf - Writes end of line sequence to standard output
Delay - Pauses program execution for n millisecond interval
DumpMem - Writes block of memory to standard output in hex
DumpRegs – Displays general-purpose registers and flags (hex)
GetCommandtail - Copies command-line args into array of bytes
GetDateTime – Gets the current date and time from the system
GetMaxXY - Gets number of cols, rows in console window buffer
GetMseconds - Returns milliseconds elapsed since midnight

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 Library Procedures - Overview (2 of 5)
GetTextColor - Returns active foreground and background text colors in
the console window
Gotoxy - Locates cursor at row and column on the console
IsDigit - Sets Zero flag if AL contains ASCII code for decimal digit (0–9)
MsgBox, MsgBoxAsk – Display popup message boxes
OpenInputFile – Opens existing file for input
ParseDecimal32 – Converts unsigned integer string to binary
ParseInteger32 - Converts signed integer string to binary
Random32 - Generates 32-bit pseudorandom integer in the range 0 to
FFFFFFFFh
Randomize - Seeds the random number generator
RandomRange - Generates a pseudorandom integer within a specified
range
ReadChar - Reads a single character from standard input

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 Library Procedures - Overview (3 of 5)
ReadDec - Reads 32-bit unsigned decimal integer from keyboard
ReadFromFile – Reads input disk file into buffer
ReadHex - Reads 32-bit hexadecimal integer from keyboard
ReadInt - Reads 32-bit signed decimal integer from keyboard
ReadKey – Reads character from keyboard input buffer
ReadString - Reads string from standard input, terminated by [Enter]
SetTextColor - Sets foreground and background colors of all subsequent
console text output
Str_compare – Compares two strings

Str_copy – Copies a source string to a destination string

StrLength – Returns length of a string
Str_trim - Removes unwanted characters from a string.

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 Library Procedures - Overview (4 of 5)

Str_ucase - Converts a string to uppercase letters.

WaitMsg - Displays message, waits for Enter key to be pressed
WriteBin - Writes unsigned 32-bit integer in ASCII binary format.
WriteBinB – Writes binary integer in byte, word, or doubleword format
WriteChar - Writes a single character to standard output
WriteDec - Writes unsigned 32-bit integer in decimal format
WriteHex - Writes an unsigned 32-bit integer in hexadecimal format
WriteHexB – Writes byte, word, or doubleword in hexadecimal format
WriteInt - Writes signed 32-bit integer in decimal format

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 Library Procedures - Overview (5 of 5)

WriteStackFrame - Writes the current procedure’s stack frame to the

console.
WriteStackFrameName - Writes the current procedure’s name and stack
frame to the console.
WriteString - Writes null-terminated string to console window
WriteToFile - Writes buffer to output file
WriteWindowsMsg - Displays most recent error message generated by
MS-Windows

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 Irvine Library Help
• A Windows help file showing:

• Irvine Library Procedures

Procedure Purpose
Calling & Return Arguments
Example of usage

• Some other information (we will use later)

IrvineLibHelp.chm

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 Example 1
Clear the screen, delay the program for 500 milliseconds, and
dump the registers and flags.

.code
call Clrscr
mov eax,500
call Delay
call DumpRegs

Sample output:
EAX=00000613 EBX=00000000 ECX=000000FF EDX=00000000
ESI=00000000 EDI=00000100 EBP=0000091E ESP=000000F6
EIP=00401026 EFL=00000286 CF=0 SF=1 ZF=0 OF=0

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 Example 2
Display a null-terminated string and move the cursor to the
beginning of the next screen line.

.data
str1 BYTE "Assembly language is easy!",0

.code
mov edx,OFFSET str1
call WriteString
call Crlf

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 Example 2a
Display a null-terminated string and move the cursor to the
beginning of the next screen line (use embedded CR/LF)

.data
str1 BYTE "Assembly language is easy!",0Dh,0Ah,0

.code
mov edx,OFFSET str1
call WriteString

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 Example 3
Display an unsigned integer in binary, decimal, and hexadecimal,
each on a separate line.

IntVal = 35
.code
mov eax,IntVal
call WriteBin ; display binary
call Crlf
call WriteDec ; display decimal
call Crlf
call WriteHex ; display hexadecimal
call Crlf

Sample output:
0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0010 0011
35
23

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 Example 4
Input a string from the user. EDX points to the string and ECX
specifies the maximum number of characters the user is
permitted to enter.

.data
fileName BYTE 80 DUP(0)

.code
mov edx,OFFSET fileName
mov ecx,SIZEOF fileName – 1
call ReadString

A null byte is automatically appended to the string.

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 Example 5
Generate and display ten pseudorandom signed integers in the
range 0 – 99. Pass each integer to WriteInt in EAX and display
it on a separate line.

.code
mov ecx,10 ; loop counter

L1: mov eax,100 ; ceiling value

call RandomRange ; generate random int
call WriteInt ; display signed int
call Crlf ; goto next display line
loop L1 ; repeat loop

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 Example 6
Display a null-terminated string with yellow characters on a blue
background.

.data
str1 BYTE "Color output is easy!",0

.code
mov eax,yellow + (blue * 16)
call SetTextColor
mov edx,OFFSET str1
call WriteString
call Crlf

The background color is multiplied by 16 before being added to the

foreground color.

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 What's Next

• Linking to an External Library

• The Book's Link Library
• Simple I/O without a Library
• Stack Operations
• Defining and Using Procedures
• Program Design Using Procedures

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 Video and Keyboard Processing
• Most programs require input from a keyboard and the
display of data on the screen.
• The INT (interrupt) instruction handles input and
output for most purposes
• The INT instruction requires only one operand, the
interrupt number (there are several interrupts)
• The INT instruction also requires a function code,
which is usually placed in a register.
• INT 10H – screen handling – directly to BIOS
• INT 21H – data I/O – through the OS

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 INT 10H and INT 21H functions
• INT 10H
• 02H – Set cursor
• 06H – Scroll screen
• INT 21H
• 02H – display character
• 09H – display string
• 0AH – input from keyboard
• 3FH – input from keyboard
• 40H – display string

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 Screen Features
• 25 rows (0-24) by 80 columns (0-79)
• Locations:
• Location Row/Column HexFormat
• Upper left 00/00 00H/00H
• Upper right 00/79 00H/4FH
• Center 12/39 0CH/27H
• Lower left 24/0 18H/00H
• Lower right 24/79 18H/4FH

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 Setting the Cursor
• Setting the cursor is fundamental because it
determines where the next character will be printed
• Use INT 10H with Function 2
• Page number goes in BH – usually a zero
• Row number goes in DH
• Column number goes in DL

MOV AH, 02H

MOV BH, 00
MOV DX, 080FH
INT 10H
Where did the cursor go?
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 Clearing the Screen (scrolling)
• Use INT 10H with Function 6
• AH = 06H
• AL = number of lines to scroll (00H for full screen)
• BH = attributes (color, blinking, etc.)
• CX = starting row:column
• DX = ending row:column

MOV AX, 0600H

MOV BH, 71H ;white bkgd, blue frgd
MOV CX, 0000H
MOV DX, 184FH
INT 10H
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 Attributes
• Consider BH to be a collection of 8 bits (0-7)
• Bit 7 – set it to make characters blink
• Bits 6-4 – background color
• Bit 3 – set for higher intensity
• Bits 2-0 – foreground color
• Colors
• 000 = black 100 = red
• 001 = blue 101 = magenta
• 010 = green 110 = brown
• 011 = cyan 111 = light gray
• Set color to 111 and set intensity bit to get white

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 Screen Display
• Convenient for beginners
• Displaying a string on the screen
• INT 21H with Function 09H
• Character string should end with a ‘$’

MESSAGE BYTE ‘HELLO WORLD’,’$’

MOV AH, 09H

LEA DX, MESSAGE ; Load Effective Address
INT 21H

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 Keyboard Input
• Use INT 21H with Function 0AH
• Requires a parameter list (a record of several pieces
of data)
PARAM LABEL BYTE ;sets up a record
MAXLEN BYTE 20 ;max # chars to read
ACTLEN BYTE ? ;actual # chars input
KBDATA BYTE 20 DUP(‘ ‘) ; chars input

MOV AH, 0AH

LEA DX,PARAM
INT 21H

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 Keyboard Input continued…
• MAXLEN stays the same and prevents the user from
entering more that the specified number of characters
• ACTLEN is modified by the INT 21H instruction so
that it contains the actual number of characters the
user typed.
• The user ends the input with the <enter> key. The
ASCII code for the <enter> key (0DH) is contained in
KBDATA, but is not included in ACTLEN.
• The programmer will still have to deal with the 0DH.
MOVZX BX, ACTLEN
MOV KBDATA[BX], 20H

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 More Screen Display
• INT 21H Function 02H is useful for displaying single
characters
• DL should contain the character to be displayed
CHAR BYTE ‘#’

MOV AH, 02H

MOV DL, CHAR
INT 21H

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 Your turn
• What does the following code do?
UNIV BYTE ‘Waynesburg’, 13, 10

MOV AH, 02H

MOV CX, 12
LEA DI, UNIV
L10: MOV DL, [DI]
INT 21H
INC DI
LOOP L10

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 Stack Operations

• Runtime Stack
• PUSH Operation
• POP Operation
• PUSH and POP Instructions
• Using PUSH and POP
• Example: Reversing a String
• Related Instructions

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 Runtime Stack
• Imagine a stack of plates . . .
• plates are only added to the top
• plates are only removed from the top
• LIFO structure

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 Runtime Stack
• Managed by the CPU, using two registers
• SS (stack segment)
• ESP (stack pointer) *

* SP in Real-address mode
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 PUSH Operation (1 of 2)
• A 32-bit push operation decrements the stack pointer
by 4 and copies a value into the location pointed to
by the stack pointer.

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 PUSH Operation (2 of 2)
• Same stack after pushing two more integers:

The stack grows downward. The area below ESP is always

available (unless the stack has overflowed).

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 POP Operation
• Copies value at stack[ESP] into a register or variable.
• Adds n to ESP, where n is either 2 or 4.
• value of n depends on the attribute of the operand receiving the
data

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 PUSH and POP Instructions

• PUSH syntax:
• PUSH r/m16
• PUSH r/m32
• PUSH imm32
• POP syntax:
• POP r/m16
• POP r/m32

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 Using PUSH and POP
Save and restore registers when they contain important values.
PUSH and POP instructions occur in the opposite order.

push esi ; push registers

push ecx
push ebx

mov esi,OFFSET dwordVal ; display some memory

mov ecx,LENGTHOF dwordVal
mov ebx,TYPE dwordVal
call DumpMem

pop ebx ; restore registers

pop ecx
pop esi

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 Example: Nested Loop
When creating a nested loop, push the outer loop counter
before entering the inner loop:

mov ecx,100 ; set outer loop count

L1: ; begin the outer loop
push ecx ; save outer loop count

mov ecx,20 ; set inner loop count

L2: ; begin the inner loop
;
;
loop L2 ; repeat the inner loop

pop ecx ; restore outer loop count

loop L1 ; repeat the outer loop

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 Example: Reversing a String

• Use a loop with indexed addressing

• Push each character on the stack
• Start at the beginning of the string, pop the stack in reverse order,
insert each character back into the string
• Source code

• Q: Why must each character be put in EAX before it is pushed?

Because only word (16-bit) or doubleword (32-bit) values

can be pushed on the stack.

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 Your turn . . .

• Using the String Reverse program as a starting

point,
• #1: Modify the program so the user can input a string
containing between 1 and 50 characters.
• #2: Modify the program so it inputs a list of 32-bit integers
from the user, and then displays the integers in reverse
order.

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 Related Instructions

• PUSHFD and POPFD

• push and pop the EFLAGS register
• PUSHAD pushes the 32-bit general-purpose
registers on the stack
• order: EAX, ECX, EDX, EBX, ESP, EBP, ESI, EDI
• POPAD pops the same registers off the stack in
reverse order
• PUSHA and POPA do the same for 16-bit registers

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 Your Turn . . .

• Write a program that does the following:

• Assigns integer values to EAX, EBX, ECX, EDX, ESI,
and EDI
• Uses PUSHAD to push the general-purpose registers
on the stack
• Using a loop, your program should pop each integer
from the stack and display it on the screen

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 What's Next

• Linking to an External Library

• The Book's Link Library
• Stack Operations
• Defining and Using Procedures
• Program Design Using Procedures

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 Defining and Using Procedures

• Creating Procedures
• Documenting Procedures
• Example: SumOf Procedure
• CALL and RET Instructions
• Nested Procedure Calls
• Local and Global Labels
• Procedure Parameters
• Flowchart Symbols
• USES Operator

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 Creating Procedures
• Large problems can be divided into smaller tasks to
make them more manageable
• A procedure is the ASM equivalent of a Java or C++
function
• Following is an assembly language procedure named
sample:

sample PROC
.
.
ret
sample ENDP

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 Documenting Procedures
Suggested documentation for each procedure:

• A description of all tasks accomplished by the procedure.

• Receives: A list of input parameters; state their usage and
requirements.
• Returns: A description of values returned by the procedure.
• Requires: Optional list of requirements called preconditions that
must be satisfied before the procedure is called.

If a procedure is called without its preconditions satisfied, it will

probably not produce the expected output.

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 Example: SumOf Procedure

;---------------------------------------------------------
SumOf PROC
;
; Calculates and returns the sum of three 32-bit integers.
; Receives: EAX, EBX, ECX, the three integers. May be
; signed or unsigned.
; Returns: EAX = sum, and the status flags (Carry,
; Overflow, etc.) are changed.
; Requires: nothing
;---------------------------------------------------------
add eax,ebx
add eax,ecx
ret
SumOf ENDP

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 CALL and RET Instructions

• The CALL instruction calls a procedure

• pushes offset of next instruction on the stack
• copies the address of the called procedure into EIP
• The RET instruction returns from a procedure
• pops top of stack into EIP

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 CALL-RET Example (1 of 2)

main PROC
00000020 call MySub
0000025 is the offset of the
00000025 mov eax,ebx
instruction immediately
.
following the CALL
instruction .
main ENDP

MySub PROC
00000040 is the offset of 00000040 mov eax,edx
the first instruction inside .
MySub .
ret
MySub ENDP

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 CALL-RET Example (2 of 2)

The CALL instruction

pushes 00000025 onto
the stack, and loads
00000040 into EIP

The RET instruction

pops 00000025 from the
stack into EIP

(stack shown before RET executes)

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 Nested Procedure Calls

By the time Sub3 is called, the

stack contains all three return
addresses:

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 Local and Global Labels
A local label is visible only to statements inside the same
procedure. A global label is visible everywhere.

main PROC
jmp L2 ; error
L1:: ; global label
exit
main ENDP

sub2 PROC
L2: ; local label
jmp L1 ; ok
ret
sub2 ENDP

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 Procedure Parameters (1 of 3)

• A good procedure might be usable in many

different programs
• but not if it refers to specific variable names
• Parameters help to make procedures flexible
because parameter values can change at runtime

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 Procedure Parameters (2 of 3)
The ArraySum procedure calculates the sum of an array. It
makes two references to specific variable names:

ArraySum PROC
mov esi,0 ; array index
mov eax,0 ; set the sum to zero
mov ecx,LENGTHOF myarray ; set number of elements

L1: add eax,myArray[esi] ; add each integer to sum

add esi,4 ; point to next integer
loop L1 ; repeat for array size

mov theSum,eax ; store the sum

ret
ArraySum ENDP

What if you wanted to calculate the sum of two or three arrays

within the same program?

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 Procedure Parameters (3 of 3)
This version of ArraySum returns the sum of any doubleword
array whose address is in ESI. The sum is returned in EAX:

ArraySum PROC
; Receives: ESI points to an array of doublewords,
; ECX = number of array elements.
; Returns: EAX = sum
;-----------------------------------------------------
mov eax,0 ; set the sum to zero

L1: add eax,[esi] ; add each integer to sum

add esi,4 ; point to next integer
loop L1 ; repeat for array size

ret
ArraySum ENDP

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 Flowchart Symbols
• The following symbols are the basic building blocks of
flowcharts:

(Includes two symbols not listed on page 166 of the book.)

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 Flowchart for
the ArraySum
Procedure AS1:

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 Your turn . . .

Draw a flowchart that expresses the following

pseudocode:

input exam grade from the user

if( grade > 70 )
display "Pass"
else
display "Fail"
endif

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 . . . (Solution)

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 Your turn . . .

• Modify the flowchart in the previous slide to allow the

user to continue to input exam scores until a value of
–1 is entered

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 USES Operator
• Lists the registers that will be preserved
ArraySum PROC USES esi ecx
mov eax,0 ; set the sum to zero
etc.

MASM generates the code shown in gold:

ArraySum PROC
push esi
push ecx
.
.
pop ecx
pop esi
ret
ArraySum ENDP

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 When not to push a register
The sum of the three registers is stored in EAX on line (3), but
the POP instruction replaces it with the starting value of EAX
on line (4):

SumOf PROC ; sum of three integers

push eax ; 1
add eax,ebx ; 2
add eax,ecx ; 3
pop eax ; 4
ret
SumOf ENDP

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 What's Next

• Linking to an External Library

• The Book's Link Library
• Stack Operations
• Defining and Using Procedures
• Program Design Using Procedures

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 Program Design Using Procedures

• Top-Down Design (functional decomposition)

involves the following:
• design your program before starting to code
• break large tasks into smaller ones
• use a hierarchical structure based on procedure calls
• test individual procedures separately

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 Integer Summation Program (1 of 4)

Description: Write a program that prompts the user for

multiple 32-bit integers, stores them in an array,
calculates the sum of the array, and displays the sum on
the screen.

Main steps:
• Prompt user for multiple integers
• Calculate the sum of the array
• Display the sum

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 Procedure Design (2 of 4)
Main
Clrscr ; clear screen
PromptForIntegers
WriteString ; display string
ReadInt ; input integer
ArraySum ; sum the integers
DisplaySum
WriteString ; display string
WriteInt ; display integer

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 Structure Chart (3 of 4)

gray indicates • View the stub program

library
procedure • View the final program

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 Sample Output (4 of 4)

Enter a signed integer: 550

Enter a signed integer: -23
Enter a signed integer: -96
The sum of the integers is: +431

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 Summary
• Procedure – named block of executable code
• Runtime stack – LIFO structure
• holds return addresses, parameters, local variables
• PUSH – add value to stack
• POP – remove value from stack
• Use the Irvine32 library for all standard I/O and data
conversion
• Want to learn more? Study the library source code in
the c:\Irvine\Examples\Lib32 folder

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 Something for your exam
• DIV : Unsigned Divide
• Size Op 1 Op 2 Quotient Remain Example
16-bit AX 8-bit AL AH DIV BH
32-bit DX:AX 16-bit AX DX DIV CX
64-bit EDX:EAX 32-bit EAX EDX DIV ECX

There is also an IDIV instruction for Signed Divide, but the registers
used are the same as the above.

The user must be aware of the sizes of the variables being used.
For example, if AX contains 4000 and DIV 10 is used, then the
quotient is 400, which is too big to fit into the AL register.

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 55 64 67 61 6E 67 65 6E

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