C++ Programming:

From Problem Analysis

to Program Design,

MAJID HUSSAIN
 Objectives
In this chapter you will:
• Learn about control structures
• Examine relational and logical operators
• Explore how to form and evaluate logical
(Boolean) expressions
• Discover how to use the selection control
structures if, if...else, and switch in a
program

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 2

Control Structures

• A computer can proceed:

− In sequence
− Selectively (branch) - making a choice
− Repetitively (iteratively) - looping
• Some statements are executed only if certain
conditions are met
• A condition is represented by a logical
(Boolean) expression that can be true or false
• A condition is met if it evaluates to true
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 3
Bitwise Operators (integers)

• Bitwise "and" operator &

• Bitwise "or" operator |
• Bitwise "exclusive or" operator ^
− (0 on same bits, 1 on different
bits)
• Bitwise "ones complement" operator ~
• Shift left <<
• Shift right >> 5
Bitwise Operators (Example)
Mathematical Expressions

• An expression can be a constant, a

variable, or a combination of
constants and variables combined with
operators

• Can create complex expressions using

multiple mathematical operators:
2
height
a + b / c
3-7
Using Mathematical Expressions

3-8
Precedence Rules

9
Precedence of Operators

• Relational and logical operators are

evaluated from left to right

• The associativity is left to right

• Parentheses can override precedence

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 10

Order of Operations

• In an expression with more than one

operator, evaluate in this order

• In the expression 2 + 2 * 2 – 2
Evalua Evalua Evalua
te te te
2nd 1st 3rd

3-12
Associativity of Operators

• Implied grouping/parentheses
Example: - (unary negation)
associates right to left

-5  -5;
--5  - (-5)  5;
---5 = -(-(-5)) = - (+5)  -5

3-13
 Associativity of Operators

• * / % + - all associate left to right

3 + 2 + 4 + 1 = (3 + 2) + 4 + 1 = ((3+2)+4)+1
=(((3+2)+4) + 1)

• parentheses ( ) can be used to override the

order of operations
2 + 2 * 2 – 2 = 4
(2 + 2) * 2 – 2 = 6
2 + 2 * (2 – 2) = 2
(2 + 2) * (2 – 2) = 0
3-14
Precedence Rules – Example 1

15
Precedence Rules – Example 2

16
Precedence Rules – Example 3

17
Precedence Rules (overriding)

• For example: x = 3 * a - ++b % 3;

• If we intend to have the statement

evaluated differently from the way
specified by the precedence rules, we
need to specify it using parentheses ( )
• Using parenthesis:
x = 3 * ((a - ++b)%3);

18
 Compound Conditions
COMPOUND: Multiple conditions if
( (Age < 0) || (Age > 120) )
–At least one condition must be true

if ( (Age >=1) && (Age <= 120) )

–BOTH conditions must be true

INVALID:
if ( Age >=1 && <= 120 ) //Need 2 relational expressions
if ( 1 <= Age <= 120 ) //Although okay in math!
 Logical Operators
Used to create relational expressions from
other
relational expressions
&& AND New relational expression is true if both
expressions are true
|| OR New relational expression is true if either
expression is true
Reverses the value of an expression; true
! NOT expression becomes false, false
expression becomes true
 Logical Operator Rules

Operand(s) must be
bool(true/false)
true && true
true || true
true || false true
false || true
! false
true && false
false && true false
false || false
! true
 Logical Operator Examples

int x = 12, y = 5, z = -
• 4;
(x > y) && (y > z) true

(x > y) && (z > y) false

(x <= z) || (y == z) false
(x <= z) || (y != z) true
!(x >= z) false
 Logical Precedence

Highest !
&
&
L
Example: o
(2 < 3) || (5 > 6) && (7 > 8)
w
e
is true because AND is evaluated
st before
OR
|
 More on Precedence

Highest arithmetic operators

relational operators
Lowest logical operators
Example:
8 < 2 + 7 || 5 == 6 is true

4-22
 Logical Precedence

Highest !
&
&
L
Example: o
(2 < 3) || (5 > 6) && (7 > 8)
w
e
is true because AND is evaluated
st before
OR
|
 More on Precedence

Highest arithmetic operators

relational operators
Lowest logical operators
Example:
8 < 2 + 7 || 5 == 6 is true

4-22
 Algebraic Expressions

• Multiplication requires an operator

Area = lw is written as Area = l * w;
• There is no exponentiation operator
Area = s2 is written as Area = pow(s, 2);
(note: pow requires the cmath header file) OR
Area = s*s;

• Parentheses may be needed to maintain order

of operations
y 2  y1
m is written as: m3-27
= (y2-
x 2  x1
y1)/(x2-x1);
Relational Operators
• Relational operators:
− Allow comparisons
− Require two operands (binary)
− Return 1 if expression is true, 0 otherwise
• Comparing values of different data types may
produce unpredictable results
− For example, 8 < '5' should not be done
• Any nonzero value is treated as true

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 29

Comparing string Types
• Relational operators can be applied to strings
• Strings are compared character by character,
starting with the first character
• Comparison continues until either a mismatch is
found or all characters are found equal
• If two strings of different lengths are compared and
the comparison is equal to the last character of the
shorter string
− The shorter string is less than the larger string

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 32

string Comparison Example
• Suppose we have the following declarations:
string str1 = "Hello";
string str2 = "Hi";
string str3 = "Air";
string str4 = "Bill";

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 33

Logical (Boolean) Operators
• Logical (Boolean) operators enable you to combine
logical expressions
• Three logical (Boolean) operators:
! - not
&& – and
|| - or
• Logical operators take logical values as operands and
yield logical values as results
• ! is unary; && and || are binary operators
• Putting ! in front of a logical expression reverses its
value

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 36

One-Way (if) Selection

• The syntax of one-way selection is:

if (expression)

statement

• Statement is executed if the value of the

expression is true

• Statement is bypassed if the value is false;

program goes to the next statement
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 41
Two-Way (if…else) Selection

• Two-way selection takes the form:

if (expression)
statement1
else
statement2
• If expression is true, statement1 is executed
otherwise statement2 is executed
• statement1 and statement2 are any C++
statements
• else is a reserved word
C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 45
Compound (Block of) Statement

• Compound statement (block of statements):

{
statement1;
statement2;
.
.
.
statementn;
}
• A compound statement is a single statement

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 48

Compound Statement Example
if (age > 18)
{
cout << "Eligible to vote." < <endl;
cout << "No longer a minor." << endl;
}
else
{
cout << "Not eligible to vote.“
<< endl;
cout << "Still a minor." << endl;
}

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 49

Nested if

• Nesting: one control statement in

another
• An else is associated with the most
recent if that has not been paired with
an else

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 50

Conditional Operator (?:)

• Conditional operator (?:) takes three arguments

(ternary)
• Syntax for using the conditional operator:
expression1 ? expression2 : expression3

• If expression1 is true, the result of the

conditional expression is expression2.
Otherwise, the result is expression3

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 52

switch Structures

• switch structure: alternate to if-else

• switch expression is evaluated first

• Value of the expression determines which

corresponding action is taken

• Expression is sometimes called the selector

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 53

switch Structures (continued)

• Expression value can be only integral

• Its value determines which statement is

selected for execution

• A particular case value should appear only

once

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 54

switch Structures (continued)

• One or more statements may follow a case

label
• Braces are not needed to turn multiple
statements into a single compound statement
• The break statement may or may not appear
after each statement
• switch, case, break, and default are
reserved words

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 56

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
char grade; cout << "Enter your grade: "; cin >> grade; cout << endl;
switch (grade)
{
case 'A':
cout << "Your grade is A." << endl;
break;
case 'B':
cout << "Your grade is B." << endl;
break;
case 'C':
cout << "Your grade is C." << endl;
break;
case 'F':
case 'f':
cout << "Your grade is C." << endl;
break;
default:
cout<<" The grade is invalid."<<endl;
}
return 0; C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 57
Summary

• Control structures alter normal control flow

• Most common control structures are selection
and repetition
• Relational operators: ==, <, <=, >, >=, !=
• Logical expressions evaluate to 1 (true) or 0
(false)
• Logical operators: ! (not), && (and), || (or)

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 58

Summary (continued)

• Two selection structures: one-way selection

and two-way selection
• The expression in an if or if...else
structure is usually a logical expression
• No else statement in C++. Every else has
a related if
• A sequence of statements enclosed between
braces, { and }, is called a compound
statement or block of statements

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 59

Summary (continued)

• Using assignment in place of the equality

operator creates a semantic error
• switch structure handles multiway selection
• break statement ends switch statement

C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design, Third Edition 60